Decolonization

Means of Decolonization

Negotiated Independence: Nations gained freedom through peaceful negotiations with imperial powers.
- India: British colony that, after investments in infrastructure, had a growing middle class influenced by nationalism.
  - Indian National Congress (1885) petitioned for greater self-rule but was ignored.
  - Indians fought for Britain in WWI, expecting greater self-rule, but were again ignored.
  - Under Mahatma Gandhi's leadership, the resistance movement adopted nonviolent tactics.
  - British transferred limited authority in the 1920s but called on Indian troops again in WWII.
  - India gained independence in 1947.
  - Partition of India led to the creation of Pakistan for the Muslim minority, resulting in violence and mass displacement.
- Gold Coast (Ghana): Led by Kwame Nkrumah, negotiated independence from Britain in 1957.
Armed Struggle: Decolonization achieved through violent conflict, often influenced by the size of the European settler population.
- Algeria: French settlers resisted Algerian independence, leading to violent conflict after the formation of the National Liberation Front in 1954.
  - French forces responded brutally, targeting civilians.
  - Algeria gained independence in 1962 after negotiations led by President Charles de Gaulle.
- Angola: Three Angolan political groups opposed Portuguese rule, leading to violence.
  - A coup in Portugal in 1974 led to negotiations for Angolan independence in 1975.
  - Civil war erupted between the three groups (communist and anti-communist factions) shortly after independence, becoming a proxy war in the Cold War.

Problem of Colonial Boundaries

Imperial powers drew boundaries without regard for ethnic and religious groups, leading to violent power struggles after independence.
- Nigeria: Negotiated independence from Britain in 1960, but a civil war broke out by 1967.
  - Igbo people tried to secede and form Biafra, leading to violent resistance from the northern government and eventual reunification in 1970.