chapter 21

Major Concepts

• Concert of Europe: Attempt by conservative leaders like Metternich to maintain political authority and religious tradition in post-Napoleonic Europe.

• Liberals and Radicals: Liberals advocated for popular sovereignty and civil rights for the middle class, while radicals pushed for universal male suffrage. Other movements included labor unions, feminist movements, and abolitionist efforts.

• Romanticism: Artistic break from neoclassicism emphasizing emotion, nature, religion, and the supernatural.

Congress of Vienna (1814-1815)

• Participants: Hundreds of European royals and diplomats convened in Vienna.

• Francis I: The Austrian emperor hosted the congress and organized various festivities alongside peace negotiations.

• Objective: To secure peace and restore the traditional political order after decades of warfare.

• Outcomes:

  • Restoration of monarchies in France and Spain (e.g., resuming Bourbon rule).

  • Restoration led to temporary stability, but old orders faced challenges from new ideologies such as liberalism and nationalism.

Conservative Order (1815-1830)

• Goals: Contain revolutionary forces and restore the old order.

• Metternich’s Principle of Legitimacy: Restoration of legitimate monarchs to maintain peace and stability by preserving traditional institutions.

• Balance of Power: Diplomatic approach aimed to prevent any one country from dominating Europe.

Forces of Change Post-Congress of Vienna

• New Ideologies: Liberalism and nationalism emerged strong against conservatism, catalyzing revolts throughout Europe in the 1820s and 1830s, culminating in the widespread revolutions of 1848.

• Industrial Revolution: This period was influenced by industrial developments, making conservative restoration increasingly untenable by 1850.

Notable Revolutions (1830-1848)

• Immediate Reactions: Old regimes faced revolts; for example, uprisings in Belgium, Italy, and Poland.

• 1848 Revolutions: Nationalist and liberal revolutions spread across Europe but faced many failures due to internal divisions among the revolutionaries.

Romanticism

• General Characteristics: Focused on emotion, glorification of the past, and a strong connection to nature.

• Literature and Arts: Romantic literature highlighted individualism and heroism; major figures included Goethe, Byron, and Shelley.

• Music Influence: Composers like Beethoven and Berlioz emphasized deep emotional expression.

Conclusion: End of Conservative Order

• As of 1850, while conservatives managed to regain control temporarily, the failures of the revolutionary movements resulted in increased realization that the old order could not sustain the socio-political changes brought about by the Enlightenment and Industrial Revolution.

• Emerging Ideologies: Subsequent waves of nationalism and liberalism laid the groundwork for future movements and changes in the latter half of the 19th century.

Major Concepts

Concert of Europe

• Definition: A series of alliances established among European nations after the Congress of Vienna to maintain the balance of power and suppress revolutionary movements.

• Leaders Involved: Key figures included Austrian Foreign Minister Klemens von Metternich, who emphasized conservative ideology and the need for collaboration among monarchical regimes.

• Outcome: The Concert of Europe effectively created a diplomatic framework that prevented large-scale wars in Europe for several decades, establishing regular meetings among the great powers.

Liberals and Radicals

• Liberals: Advocated for popular sovereignty, civil rights, and constitutional government, primarily representing the interests of the middle class. They believed that governments should be accountable to the people.

• Radicals: Pushed for complete social and political reform, including universal male suffrage, social equality, and extensive changes to existing political structures. They often aligned with burgeoning labor unions, feminist movements, and abolitionist efforts to promote equality and human rights.

Romanticism

• Characteristics: Marked a significant shift from the rationality of neoclassicism, focusing on emotion, the celebration of nature, the supernatural, and a reverence for the past.

• Influence on Arts: Romanticism influenced various forms of art, including literature, visual arts, and music, leading to an emphasis on individual expression, nationalism, and folklore.

Congress of Vienna (1814-1815)

• Participants: Hundreds of European royals and diplomats, including representatives from Austria, Prussia, Russia, and Britain, convened in Vienna.

• Francis I: The Austrian emperor played a crucial role in hosting the congress, orchestrating a series of festivities aimed at promoting goodwill alongside the peace negotiations.

• Objectives: Focused on securing peace and restoring traditional political order following the Napoleonic Wars, aiming to establish a stable and enduring European order.

• Outcomes:

  • Restoration of monarchies, such as resuming Bourbon rule in France and Spain.

  • While initial stability returned to Europe, it was challenged by the rise of new ideologies like liberalism and nationalism.

Conservative Order (1815-1830)

• Goals: Aimed to contain revolutionary forces, ensuring that the old orders were preserved and political authority remained in conservative hands.

• Metternich’s Principle of Legitimacy: Advocated the restoration of legitimate monarchs to achieve peace and stability, arguing that traditional institutions were crucial for societal health.

• Balance of Power: Employed as a fundamental diplomatic approach to prevent any single nation from dominating the continent, establishing alliances and counter-alliances among the major powers.

Forces of Change Post-Congress of Vienna

• Emergence of New Ideologies: The rise of liberalism and nationalism became increasingly prominent, directly challenging conservatism and leading to revolts across Europe during the 1820s and 1830s.

• Industrial Revolution: Significant industrial developments further destabilized the conservative restoration, aligning with the socio-political movements aiming to reform the existing order by 1850.

Notable Revolutions (1830-1848)

• Immediate Reactions: Numerous uprisings occurred against oppressive regimes, including revolts in Belgium, Italy, and Poland that called for independence and reforms.

• 1848 Revolutions: A wave of nationalist and liberal revolutions erupted across Europe; however, many met with failure due to internal divisions, lack of unified leadership, and repressive governmental responses.

Romanticism

• General Characteristics: Romanticism placed a high value on emotion, the glorification of nature, and individual imagination. It rejected the rigid forms of neoclassicism.

• Literature and Arts: Prominent figures included Johann Wolfgang von Goethe, Lord Byron, and Percy Bysshe Shelley, whose works often highlighted the struggles of the individual against societal constraints.

• Music Influence: Composers such as Ludwig van Beethoven and Hector Berlioz emphasized profound emotional depth and innovative expression through their musical compositions, influencing the landscape of classical music.

Conclusion: End of Conservative Order

• Post-1850 Realities: Although conservatives regained temporary control, the failed revolutionary movements underscored the growing recognition that maintaining the old order was increasingly untenable given the sweeping socio-political changes dictated by the Enlightenment and Industrial Revolution.

• Emerging Ideologies: The continuing waves of liberalism and nationalism provided a fertile ground for upcoming movements, culminating in profound changes throughout the latter half of the 19th century, foreshadowing major political upheavals and the eventual rise of nation-states.

I. The Aftermath of Napoleon and the Congress of Vienna (1815)

• The Conservative Order:

  • Goal: Restore the old order, suppress liberal and nationalist ideas stemming from the French Revolution.

  • Key Players:

    • Klemens von Metternich (Austria): Architect of the Congress of Vienna, believed in strong monarchy and balance of power.

    • Alexander I (Russia): Initially liberal, later became more conservative.

    • Castlereagh (Britain): Focus on balance of power and stability.

  • Principles:

    • Legitimacy: Restoring pre-Napoleonic monarchs to their thrones.

    • Balance of Power: Redrawing borders to prevent any one nation from dominating Europe.

    • Compensation: Rewarding the victors with land and influence.

  • Outcomes:

    • France returned to its 1790 borders.

    • Creation of the German Confederation (loose alliance of German states).

    • Netherlands and Belgium united (for now).

    • Territorial agreements aimed at maintaining stability.

• The Concert of Europe:

  • A system of alliances (Quadruple Alliance: Britain, Austria, Prussia, Russia) designed to maintain the balance of power and suppress revolutions.

  • Regular congresses held to address European problems.

  • Early successes in maintaining peace, but ultimately strained by competing national interests.

• Challenges to the Conservative Order:

  • Liberalism: Advocated for individual rights, constitutional government, and limited monarchy.

  • Nationalism: Emphasized national identity, cultural unity, and self-determination.

  • These forces, suppressed but not eliminated, would fuel future revolutions.

II. The Ideologies of the Era

• Conservatism (Dominant Force):

  • Key tenets:

    • Tradition, hierarchy, and established institutions.

    • Skepticism of rapid change and individual liberties.

    • Emphasis on social order and stability.

    • Edmund Burke as an intellectual father of conservatism, critique of French Revolution

  • Support: Nobility, clergy, and those fearing social upheaval

• Liberalism (Growing Influence):

  • Key tenets:

    • Individual rights and freedoms (speech, press, assembly).

    • Constitutional government and representative assemblies.

    • Limited monarchy or republic.

    • Laissez-faire economics (free market).

  • Support: Middle class, some intellectuals, and those seeking greater political participation.

• Nationalism (Increasingly Powerful):

  • Key tenets:

    • Shared culture, language, history, and identity.

    • Desire for national independence and unification.

    • Could be liberal or conservative, depending on the context.

  • Support: Varies depending on context, could gain support from all classes

• Early Socialism:

  • Key tenets:

    • Critique of the poverty and inequality resulting from industrial capitalism.

    • Advocated for social and economic equality.

    • Utopian socialists (e.g., Fourier, Owen) sought to create ideal communities.

• Romanticism (Artistic and Intellectual Movement)

  • Key tenets:

    • Emotion, intuition, and imagination over reason and logic.

    • Celebration of nature and the sublime.

    • Focus on the individual and the subjective experience.

    • Interest in the past, especially the medieval era.

  • Examples * Literature: Wordsworth, Byron, Goethe

    • Art: Delacroix, Turner

    • Music: Beethoven, Chopin

III. Challenges to the Conservative Order: Revolutions and Unrest

• The Revolutions of 1830:

  • France: July Revolution – Overthrow of Charles X and establishment of Louis-Philippe (July Monarchy).

  • Belgium: Revolution leads to independence from the Netherlands.

  • Other unrest in Italy, Poland, and Germany, but largely unsuccessful.

  • Significance: Showed the growing power of liberal nationalism and the limits of the conservative order.

• The Revolutions of 1848:

  • Widespread Revolutions: France, Austria, German states, Italy.

  • Causes:

    • Economic hardship and high unemployment during the "Hungry Forties".

    • Growing liberal and nationalist agitation.

    • Desire for greater political participation.

  • Key Events:

    • France: Second Republic established, briefly.

    • Austria: Metternich resigns, temporary constitutional changes.

    • German States: Frankfurt Parliament aims (unsuccessfully) for German unification.

    • Italy: Revolts against Austrian rule, short-lived republics established.

  • Outcomes:

    • Most revolutions ultimately failed due to divisions among revolutionaries, the strength of conservative forces, and military intervention by larger nations.

    • The failure of the 1848 revolutions led to a new wave of nationalism but also set the stage for the "Realpolitik" of the next generation.

IV. Key Themes of the Period:

• Clash of Ideologies: Conservatives versus liberals versus nationalists.

• The Legacy of the French Revolution: Its ideas continued to shape political movements.

• The Rise of Nationalism: A powerful force that would reshape the political map of Europe.

• The Impact of Industrialization: Exacerbated social tensions and contributed to the outbreak of revolutions.

• The Limits of the Concert of Europe: Ultimately unable to contain the forces of change.

• The Romantic Movement: Influenced arts and challenged enlightenment thought

V. Important People:

• Klemens von Metternich

• Edmund Burke

• Louis XVIII

• Charles X

• Louis Philippe

• Various Romantic artists/writers: William Wordsworth, Lord Byron, etc.

Important People:

• Klemens von Metternich: Austrian Foreign Minister and architect of the Congress of Vienna, advocating for conservatism and a balance of power in Europe.

• Edmund Burke: An intellectual figure of conservatism, critiquing the French Revolution and emphasizing tradition and social order.

• Louis XVIII: King of France who restored Bourbon rule after Napoleon's defeat.

• Charles X: Successor to Louis XVIII, known for his conservative policies which led to the July Revolution in France.

• Louis Philippe: Became the King of the French after the July Revolution, representing a more liberal monarchy.

• Alexander I: Tsar of Russia who initially embraced liberal ideas but later adopted conservative measures after the Congress of Vienna.