Study Guide: Early Social Structure and Strain Theories of Crime
Durkheim and the Concept of Anomie
Developed a model of societal development based on economic and labor distribution.
Societal evolution described as moving from a simplistic, mechanical society to a complex, organic solidarity.
Mechanical Societies
Characteristics:
Individuals engage in similar functions (hunting for men, gathering for women).
Few anomalies exist (e.g., medicine men).
There was constant interaction with like members of society which led to strong uniformity in values.
This strong uniformity leads to a collective conscience defined as:
The degree to which individuals within society think alike.
Similar norms and values result in mechanical solidarity, with law functioning to enforce conformity.
Organic Societies
Evolve during the Industrial Age:
Labor distribution becomes more specialized; individuals perform different tasks.
Organic solidarity arises from this specialization leading to dependencies.
No one could survive on their own because they needed goods and services from each other
Laws function to:
Regulate interactions and maintain solidarity among groups.
Include labor laws (regulating employer-employee relationships) and criminal laws (protecting individuals).
Cultural Changes Between Society Types
Transition from universally shared roles to specific roles leads to significant cultural differences and normative contrasts across groups.
Examples:
Business professionals vs. religious communities vs. youth cultures.
Weakened collective conscience results in increased anomie, indicating a state of normlessness and antisocial behavior.
Functions of Crime According to Durkheim
Defining moral boundaries: Crime clarifies societal rules through punishment, helping individuals understand acceptable behavior.
Identification of rule-breakers: Punchlines create bonds among law-abiding citizens, fostering a sense of superiority.
Law adaptations: Absence of lawbreakers prompts society to redefine crime, ensuring continuous need for law definitions and societal norms.
Strain Theories
Focus on the frustration as the primary cause of criminality.
While different in specifics, all agree on strain being a major catalyst for crime.
Consider various causes of frustration and coping mechanisms.
Merton’s Concept of Anomie and Strain
Merton’s theory focuses on structural strain:
Differentiates from Durkheim’s notion of Anomie (normlessness) to his framework where Anomie reflects strain due to the mismatch between cultural goals and means of achievement.
American Dream: belief that hard work will result in success (material wealth).
Observations:
Most people are socialized to believe in the American Dream.
A minority move from lower to upper class, while most remain in poverty, leading to systemic strain and frustration.
Nature of Strain and Goals
Strain arises from emphasis on material goals while conventional means are neglected.
Ideal society equates importance between goals and means.
Individuals from lower class see the American Dream as unattainable, generating strain from late teens to mid-20s.
Example of Strain Impact
Example comparison between two individuals:
Joe: Drug dealer earning R95,000 a month, owns a four-bedroom house, drives a Porsche; dropped out of school.
John: Holds a PhD, post-doc position, earns R25,000 a month, resides in a one-bedroom apartment.
Strain Theory Adaptations
Framework of adaptations in response to strain:
Conformity: Accepting both goals and means, pursuing material success through conventional avenues (e.g., students).
Ritualism: Abandoning pursuit of material success while adhering to means (e.g., individuals satisfied with current roles).
Innovation: Accepting goals while rejecting means, finding alternative criminal pathways (e.g., drug dealers).
Retreatism: Rejecting both goals and means, dropping out (e.g., heavy drug users).
Rebellion: Opposing established goals and means, seeking to enact change (e.g., activists).
Merton's Adaptations Table
Adaptation | Goals | Means |
|---|---|---|
Conformity | Accept | Accept |
Innovation | Accept | Reject |
Ritualism | Reject | Accept |
Retreatism | Reject | Reject |
Rebellion | Replace | Replace |
Cohen’s Theory of Lower-class Status Frustration and Gang Formation
Utilizes Merton's strain theory to explain gang association:
Young males from lower-class disadvantaged backgrounds likely experience school failure due to lack of socialization and discipline.
Failures lead to status frustration, feelings of inadequacy and rejection of middle-class values.
Reaction Formation and Its Implications
Youths reject middle-class norms (e.g., responsibility, accountability) and develop opposing values, often engaging in delinquent acts.
Rejection behaviors serve as a Freudian defense mechanism to lessen guilt for not achieving conventional success.
Types of Responses to Adverse Conditions
College Boy: Conforms despite disadvantages, striving for success in a conventional manner.
Corner Boy: Accepts lower-class status, adapting without resorting to crime but potentially becoming complacent.
Cloward and Ohlin’s Theory of Differential Opportunity
Proposes distinct gang types based on neighborhood social structure:
Criminal Gangs: Organized structures in lower-class areas offering illegal opportunities; members receive guidance from adult criminals.
Conflict Gangs: Arise in unstable neighborhoods; tends toward impulsive violence without organized criminal mentorship.
Retreatist Gangs: Individuals failing in both societal and criminal success, often engage in drug use to escape.
General Strain Theory
Proposed by Robert Agnew, focuses on the common frustrations individuals face daily.
Strain sources:
Presentation of Noxious Stimuli: Negative stimuli causing stress (e.g., abusive environments).
Removal of Positively Valued Stimuli: Loss of positive elements in life (e.g., job loss).
Various reactions to strain ultimately influence criminal behavior depending on individual coping mechanisms.
Coping Mechanisms and Crime
Effective coping can mitigate stress and prevent criminal behavior.
Lack of functional coping mechanisms can lead to negative outcomes, including crime settlement.
Class Activities
Engaging with various concepts through class activities throughout the sessions.
Durkheim and the Concept of Anomie
Developed a model of societal development based on economic and labor distribution.
Societal evolution described as moving from a simplistic, mechanical society to a complex, organic solidarity.
Mechanical Societies
Characteristics:-
Individuals engage in similar functions (hunting for men, gathering for women).
Few anomalies exist (e.g., medicine men).
Strong uniformity leads to a collective conscience defined as:
The degree to which individuals within society think alike.
Similar norms and values result in mechanical solidarity, with law functioning to enforce conformity.
Organic Societies
Evolve during the Industrial Age:-
Labor distribution becomes more specialized; individuals perform different tasks.
Organic solidarity arises from this specialization leading to dependencies.
Laws function to:
Regulate interactions and maintain solidarity among groups.
Include labor laws (regulating employer-employee relationships) and criminal laws (protecting individuals).
Cultural Changes Between Society Types
Transition from universally shared roles to specific roles leads to significant cultural differences and normative contrasts across groups.
Examples:-
Business professionals vs. religious communities vs. youth cultures.
Weakened collective conscience results in increased anomie, indicating a state of normlessness and antisocial behavior.
Functions of Crime According to Durkheim
Defining moral boundaries: Crime clarifies societal rules through punishment, helping individuals understand acceptable behavior.
Identification of rule-breakers: Punchlines create bonds among law-abiding citizens, fostering a sense of superiority.
Law adaptations: Absence of lawbreakers prompts society to redefine crime, ensuring continuous need for law definitions and societal norms.
Strain Theories
Focus on the frustration as the primary cause of criminality.
While different in specifics, all agree on strain being a major catalyst for crime.
Consider various causes of frustration and coping mechanisms.
Merton’s Concept of Anomie and Strain
Merton’s theory focuses on structural strain:-
Differentiates from Durkheim’s notion of Anomie (normlessness) to his framework where Anomie reflects strain due to the mismatch between cultural goals and means of achievement.
American Dream: belief that hard work will result in success (material wealth).
Observations:
Most people are socialized to believe in the American Dream.
A minority move from lower to upper class, while most remain in poverty, leading to systemic strain and frustration.
Nature of Strain and Goals
Strain arises from emphasis on material goals while conventional means are neglected.
Ideal society equates importance between goals and means.
Individuals from lower class see the American Dream as unattainable, generating strain from late teens to mid-20s.
Example of Strain Impact
Example comparison between two individuals:-
Joe: Drug dealer earning R95,000 a month, owns a four-bedroom house, drives a Porsche; dropped out of school.
John: Holds a PhD, post-doc position, earns R25,000 a month, resides in a one-bedroom apartment.
Strain Theory Adaptations
Framework of adaptations in response to strain:-
Conformity: Accepting both goals and means, pursuing material success through conventional avenues (e.g., students).
Ritualism: Abandoning pursuit of material success while adhering to means (e.g., individuals satisfied with current roles).
Innovation: Accepting goals while rejecting means, finding alternative criminal pathways (e.g., drug dealers).
Retreatism: Rejecting both goals and means, dropping out (e.g., heavy drug users).
Rebellion: Opposing established goals and means, seeking to enact change (e.g., activists).
Merton's Adaptations Table
Adaptation | Goals | Means |
|---|---|---|
Conformity | Accept | Accept |
Innovation | Accept | Reject |
Ritualism | Reject | Accept |
Retreatism | Reject | Reject |
Rebellion | Replace | Replace |
Cohen’s Theory of Lower-class Status Frustration and Gang Formation
Utilizes Merton's strain theory to explain gang association:-
Young males from lower-class disadvantaged backgrounds likely experience school failure due to lack of socialization and discipline.
Failures lead to status frustration, feelings of inadequacy and rejection of middle-class values.
Reaction Formation and Its Implications
Youths reject middle-class norms (e.g., responsibility, accountability) and develop opposing values, often engaging in delinquent acts.
Rejection behaviors serve as a Freudian defense mechanism to lessen guilt for not achieving conventional success.
Types of Responses to Adverse Conditions
College Boy: Conforms despite disadvantages, striving for success in a conventional manner.
Corner Boy: Accepts lower-class status, adapting without resorting to crime but potentially becoming complacent.
Cloward and Ohlin’s Theory of Differential Opportunity
Proposes distinct gang types based on neighborhood social structure:-
Criminal Gangs: Organized structures in lower-class areas offering illegal opportunities; members receive guidance from adult criminals.
Conflict Gangs: Arise in unstable neighborhoods; tends toward impulsive violence without organized criminal mentorship.
Retreatist Gangs: Individuals failing in both societal and criminal success, often engage in drug use to escape.
General Strain Theory
Proposed by Robert Agnew, focuses on the common frustrations individuals face daily.
Strain sources:-
Presentation of Noxious Stimuli: Negative stimuli causing stress (e.g., abusive environments).
Removal of Positively Valued Stimuli: Loss of positive elements in life (e.g., job loss).
Various reactions to strain ultimately influence criminal behavior depending on individual coping mechanisms.
Coping Mechanisms and Crime
Effective coping can mitigate stress and prevent criminal behavior.
Lack of functional coping mechanisms can lead to negative outcomes, including crime settlement.
Class Activities
Engaging with various concepts through class activities throughout the sessions.