Reformation and Counter-Reformation in Central Europe

Support for the Reformation: In Europe, the Reformation garnered significant support from the lower classes, including townspeople, farmers, and the poor.
Spread in Hungary: The Reformation was primarily spread in Hungary by various intellectuals and professionals:
- Students, many of whom studied in the Holy Roman Empire (HRE).
- Merchants.
- Teachers.
- This led to its prevalence in urban centers.
Principle of Religious Determination: The principle of Cuius regio, eius religio (1555) dictated that the religion of the ruler determined the religion of their territory, effectively allowing rulers to choose Protestantism for their lands.
Ottoman Support: Notably, the Ottoman Turks supported the spread of the Reformation, likely as a means to destabilize Habsburg influence.

Habsburg Alignment: The Habsburg dynasty was staunchly Catholic.
Early Approach ( 16^{th} Century): Initially, during the 16^{th} century, the Habsburgs dealt cautiously with Protestants.
Later Approach ( 17^{th} Century): This changed in the 17^{th} century, leading to significant conflicts:
- The Thirty Years' War.
- Ongoing wars with the Ottoman Turks.
- Numerous Anti-Habsburg uprisings, often fueled by religious grievances.

Influx of Czech Protestants: After the Battle of White Mountain in 1620, many Czech Protestant intellectuals sought refuge in Hungary, including areas that are now part of Slovakia.
Juraj Tranovský: A prominent Protestant priest who settled in Liptovský Mikuláš, where he authored Cithara sanctorum, the first Protestant hymn book.
Radical Protestant Groups: Other, more radical Protestant groups like the Anabaptists (later known as Habáni in Hungary) also found their way into the region.
Confessions and City Unions: To distinguish themselves from these more radical wings, several city unions were formed in Hungary, articulating their specific doctrines and practices, which differed from both Catholics and radical Protestants. These included notable differences such as the marrying of priests and communion in both kinds.
- Confessio Pentapolitana: A league of 5 eastern Slovak towns: Košice, Bardejov, Levoča, Prešov, Sabinov.
- Confessio Heptapolitana: Comprised 7 mining towns: Banská Belá, Banská Bystrica, Banská Štiavnica, Kremnica, Ľubietová, Nová Baňa, Pukanec.
- Confessio Scepusiana: Represented 24 cities of Spiš.
Establishment of Protestant Hierarchy:
- The Synod of Žilina in 1610 and the Synod of Spišské Podhradie in 1614 were crucial.
- These synods led to the election of the first superintendents, establishing an individual hierarchy for the Evangelical Church within Upper Hungary.

Catholic Response: Catholics initiated the Counter-Reformation, also known as Recatholization, to reclaim lost ground and reinforce Catholic doctrine.
Methods of Recatholization: This movement employed various strategies:
- Wars: Such as the Thirty Years' War.
- Violence: Illustrated by events like the St. Bartholomew's Day massacre.
- Councils: Ecclesiastical gatherings, most notably the Council of Trent.
- Baroque Art and Architecture: Utilized to inspire faith and emotion.
- Jesuits: The Society of Jesus played a crucial role through education and missionary work.

Key Event: This massacre of French Huguenots (Protestants) occurred in Paris in 1572.
Execution: It was plotted by Catherine de Medici and carried out by Roman Catholic nobles and other citizens.
Casualties: Approximately 3,000 were killed in Paris, with estimates reaching up to 70,000 across France as a whole.
Context: This event was one in a series of brutal civil wars between Roman Catholics and Huguenots that plagued France in the late 16^{th} century.

Council of Trent's Decree: The Catholic Church, responding to the Protestant Reformation at the Council of Trent, mandated that the arts should communicate religious themes with direct and emotional involvement.
Artistic Focus: Artists were encouraged to focus on fundamental aspects of Catholic dogma, especially those challenged by the Protestant Reformation, such as the cult of the Virgin Mary.
Relatability and Inspiration: The Church desired art to be relatable to ordinary people, aiming to inspire piety and faith in them.
Emotional Depiction: Emotions were to be depicted in their extreme forms, using the immediacy of action or transformation to establish a 'closer psychological relation to the audience'. This approach led to a distinct theatricality in Baroque art, exemplified by works such as the Ecstasy of Saint Teresa.

Mikuláš Oláh (1493 - 1568):
- Actively fought the Reformation through education, the dissemination of books, and the founding of schools.
- Established his seat in Trnava, having relocated due to the Ottoman threat.
- He was instrumental in summoning the Jesuits to Trnava, recognizing their educational prowess.
- Advocated for the establishment of a school in every parish.
Peter Pázmaň (1570 – 1637):
- Oláh's successor, serving as Archbishop and later cardinal.
- Founded the University of Trnava in 1635, a significant educational institution for Catholic resurgence.
- Focused his efforts on attracting members of powerful magnate families back to Catholicism.

Religious Undercurrents: Anti-Habsburg uprisings were often conducted in the name of religion, frequently paralleling the ongoing conflicts between the Habsburgs and Ottomans.
Articular Churches (1681): Under pressure from the Tököli uprising in 1681, the emperor granted Protestants permission to construct two articular churches in every region (stolica).
- These churches had specific, restrictive characteristics: they were made of wood, without nails, lacked towers, had no entrance from the main street, and were situated on the city outskirts.
- Examples include the churches in Hronsek and Kežmarok.
End of Counter-Reformation: The Counter-Reformation officially concluded with the issuance of The Patent of Toleration in 1781, which granted greater religious freedom to Protestants.