Chapter 8 (1791-1815)

The Establishment of the New Republic and Hamilton’s Economic Vision

The Big Question of the Era: Following the ratification of the Constitution, the central inquiry was how the new republic would practically function.
The ‘Age of Passion’ (1790s): Eric Foner describes this period as one defined by intense political division over Alexander Hamilton’s economic programs, the impact of the French Revolution, and competing definitions of liberty.
George Washington’s Inauguration: Occurred in April $1789$ . Washington was the only president inaugurated with a unanimous vote from all $69$ electors.
The First Cabinet and Judicial Leadership: - Thomas Jefferson: Secretary of State. - Alexander Hamilton: Secretary of the Treasury. - John Jay: First Chief Justice of the Supreme Court.
The Rise of Political Parties: Despite the Founders’ fears that parties were ‘divisive and disloyal’ and the lack of any mention of them in the Constitution, organized parties emerged organically by the mid- $1790s$ .
Hamilton’s Five-Part Financial Program: 1. Assumption of Debts: The federal government would pay off the national debt from the Revolution at full face value, as well as outstanding state debts. 2. Creation of New National Debt: Old debts were replaced with new interest-bearing bonds, giving wealthy investors a psychological and financial stake in the government’s survival. 3. The Bank of the United States ( $1791$ ): Modeled after the Bank of England, it served as the nation's main financial agent to hold federal funds, issue paper currency, and facilitate loans. 4. Whiskey Tax: An excise tax imposed on the producers of distilled spirits to generate federal revenue. 5. Report on Manufactures ( $1791$ ): A proposal for a tariff on imported goods and government subsidies to stimulate the growth of American factories.

Ideological Conflicts: Jefferson vs. Hamilton

Hamilton’s Vision: A powerful commercial republic with strong ties to Great Britain.
Jefferson and Madison’s Vision: A republic composed of independent farmers, emphasizing westward expansion and free trade.
Strict Constructionists (Jefferson and Madison): Argued that the Constitution granted Congress only the powers specifically enumerated; therefore, a national bank was unconstitutional.
Loose Constructionists (Hamilton): Argued that the ‘general welfare’ and ‘necessary and proper’ clauses provided the federal government with implied powers.
The Jefferson-Hamilton Bargain ( $1790$ ): - Southerners initially opposed Hamilton's program, particularly Virginia, which had already settled most of its war debt. - Thomas Jefferson brokered a deal during a dinner party: The South accepted the debt assumption and the national bank in exchange for locating the permanent national capital on the Potomac River between Maryland and Virginia. - Washington, D.C. was designed by Pierre Charles L’Enfant and surveyed with the help of Benjamin Banneker, a free Black mathematician. - The construction of the capital relied heavily on the labor of enslaved people.

Global Influence and the First Party System

The Impact of the French Revolution ( $1789$ ): Initially celebrated by most Americans as a ‘sister revolution,’ it became a source of division after the execution of King Louis XVI in $1793$ and the outbreak of war between France and Britain. - Jefferson’s followers continued to defend the Revolution. - Washington and Hamilton viewed the event as a descent into anarchy.
The Edmond Genet Affair ( $1793$ ): A French envoy attempted to commission American ships to attack British vessels, prompting Washington to request his recall and issue a Proclamation of Neutrality in April $1793$ .
Jay’s Treaty ( $1794$ ): - Negotiated by John Jay in response to the British practice of impressment (kidnapping American sailors) and ship seizures. - Terms: Britain agreed to evacuate western frontier outposts (a promise unfulfilled since $1783$ ); the U.S. granted favored treatment to British imports. - Omissions: The treaty provided no British concessions regarding impressment or American shipping rights. - Political Impact: Critics viewed the treaty as an alignment with monarchical Britain against republican France, further polarizing American politics.
The First Party System Comparison: - Federalists: Led by Hamilton, John Adams, and Washington. Favored Hamilton’s economic vision, close ties with Britain, strong central government, and loose construction. Supported by merchants, financiers, and manufacturers in the Northeast. Viewed society as a fixed hierarchy and feared liberty was leading to anarchy. - Republicans (Democratic-Republicans): Led by Jefferson and Madison. Opposed Hamilton’s program, sympathized with France, favored states’ rights and strict construction. Supported by southern planters, farmers, and urban artisans. Held more faith in democratic self-government and broad participation.

Domestic Crisis and the Public Sphere

The Whiskey Rebellion ( $1794$ ): - Backcountry Pennsylvania farmers protested Hamilton’s whiskey tax, using symbols like liberty poles and the slogan ‘Liberty or Death.’ - Washington dispatched a force of $13,000$ militiamen—a larger army than he commanded during the Revolution. - Washington personally accompanied the troops part of the way, marking the only time a sitting president has commanded an army in the field. - The rebellion dispersed without combat, demonstrating the new government’s authority.
Growth of the Public Sphere: The number of newspapers tripled during the $1790s$ , and nearly $1,000$ post offices were established. - William Manning: A self-educated Massachusetts farmer who wrote Key of Liberty, discussing the struggle between ‘the few’ and ‘the many.’ - Democratic-Republican Societies ( $1793–1794$ ): Nearly $50$ clubs inspired by French Jacobins criticized the Washington administration. Federalists labeled them ‘self-created societies’ and blamed them for the Whiskey Rebellion.
Women’s Rights: Judith Sargent Murray published ‘On the Equality of the Sexes,’ arguing that women’s perceived inferiority was due to lack of education rather than nature. Women engaged in political life by circulating petitions, attending meetings, and joining boycotts.

The Presidency of John Adams

Election of $1796$ : John Adams (Federalist) defeated Thomas Jefferson (Republican) by a narrow margin of $71$ to $68$ electoral votes. As the runner-up, Jefferson became vice president.
The XYZ Affair ( $1797$ ): French officials (identified as X, Y, and Z) demanded bribes from American diplomats before negotiations. Adams publicized the dispatches, causing national outrage.
The Quasi-War ( $1798–1800$ ): An undeclared naval war with France. While Hamilton pushed for full war, Adams successfully sought peace in $1800$ .
The Alien and Sedition Acts ( $1798$ ): - Naturalization Act: Increased the residency requirement for citizenship from $5$ to $14$ years. - Alien Act: Granted the president authority to deport non-citizens deemed ‘dangerous.’ - Sedition Act: Criminalized criticism of the government. Used by Federalists to target Republican editors; $18$ were indicted and $10$ convicted, including Congressman Matthew Lyon, who served $4$ months.
Virginia and Kentucky Resolutions ( $1798$ ): - Drafted by Madison (VA) and Jefferson (KY) in opposition to the Sedition Act. - Argued the act violated the First Amendment. - Jefferson proposed that states could nullify unconstitutional federal laws. - Introduced the Compact Theory: The U.S. government was an agreement among sovereign states, allowing them to ‘interpose’ against federal overreach.

The Revolution of 1800 and the Jeffersonian Presidency

Election of $1800$ : Jefferson defeated Adams but tied with his running mate, Aaron Burr, at $73$ electoral votes each. The House of Representatives decided the election for Jefferson after $36$ ballots.
12th Amendment ( $1804$ ): Required separate electoral votes for President and Vice President to prevent future ties.
Significance: Provided the first peaceful transfer of power between rival political parties in modern history.
Jefferson’s Reforms: - Pardoned those imprisoned under the Sedition Act. - Slashed the army and navy. - Abolished all internal taxes, including the whiskey tax. - Reduced the number of government employees and paid down the national debt. - Declared in his inaugural address: ‘We are all Republicans, we are all Federalists.’

Slave Revolts and Their Aftermath

The Haitian Revolution ( $1791–1804$ ): - Enslaved people on the French colony of Saint-Domingue rose up in the largest successful slave revolution in history. - Toussaint L’Ouverture: Emerged as the primary leader. - Haiti became the first Black republic and the second independent nation in the Americas in $1804$ . - American Reactions: Black Americans saw L’Ouverture as a hero; white Americans feared slave massacres, leading to thousands of refugees fleeing to the U.S.
Gabriel’s Rebellion ( $1800$ ): - Gabriel, a Richmond blacksmith, planned a march on Richmond to take Governor James Monroe hostage and demand abolition. - He planned to spare Quakers, Methodists, and French people. - A storm delayed the plot, leading to its discovery; $26$ slaves, including Gabriel, were hanged. - Impact: Virginia tightened slave codes, required freed slaves after $1806$ to leave the state, and effectively ended the period of easy manumission.

The Marshall Court and Judicial Review

John Marshall: A Federalist Chief Justice appointed by Adams ( $1801–1835$ ) who established the Court as a powerful national branch.
Marbury v. Madison ( $1803$ ): Established the principle of judicial review—the Supreme Court's power to strike down federal laws as unconstitutional. Marshall ruled that part of the Judiciary Act of $1789$ was unconstitutional because it gave the Court powers not granted by the Constitution.
Fletcher v. Peck ( $1810$ ): Extended the power of judicial review to include state laws.

Westward Expansion and International Conflict

The Louisiana Purchase ( $1803$ ): - Napoleon offered the entire Louisiana territory to the U.S. for $15\,million$ after losing control of Haiti. - The purchase doubled the size of the U.S. - Constitutional Irony: Jefferson, a strict constructionist, admitted he had performed ‘an act beyond the Constitution’ by making the purchase. - Lewis and Clark Expedition ( $1804–1806$ ): Dispatched to explore the territory to the Pacific; guided by Shoshone woman Sacagawea.
The Barbary Wars ( $1801–1805$ ): - First American war and first encounter with the Islamic world. - Tripoli declared war after Jefferson refused further tribute payments for Mediterranean shipping safety. American victory at Tripoli Harbor occurred in $1805$ .
The Embargo Act ( $1807$ ): - In response to the Chesapeake-Leopard Affair (British attack on an American ship), Jefferson banned all American shipping to foreign ports. - Outcome: American exports plummeted by $80\%$ , devastating port cities, while Britain and France were largely unaffected. Replaced by the Non-Intercourse Act ( $1809$ ), which targeted only current belligerents.

The War of 1812 and Native Resistance

War Hawks: Younger Republicans like Henry Clay (KY) and John C. Calhoun (SC) who pushed for war to defend American honor and annex Canada and Florida.
Native Resistance and Pan-Indian Alliances: - Tenskwatawa (The Prophet): Preached a rejection of European influence and a return to traditional ways. - Tecumseh: Revived the idea of a pan-Indian alliance to resist American expansion. Famously asked, ‘Why not sell the air, the great sea, as well as the earth?’ - Battle of Tippecanoe (Nov. $1811$ ): William Henry Harrison destroyed Prophetstown.
The War of 1812: - Madison’s declaration of war passed by the smallest margin in U.S. history. - Key Events: - Battle of the Thames ( $1813$ ): Harrison defeated pan-Indian forces; Tecumseh was killed. - Burning of Washington, D.C. ( $1814$ ): Occurred after the British defeated Napoleon. - Fort McHenry ( $1814$ ): Failed British bombardment of Baltimore; inspired Francis Scott Key to write ‘The Star-Spangled Banner.’ - Battle of Horseshoe Bend ( $1814$ ): Andrew Jackson defeated the Red Stick Muscogees, forcing the cession of $22\,million$ acres. - Battle of New Orleans (Jan. $1815$ ): Jackson’s major victory fought after the peace treaty was signed; featured free Black soldiers.
Treaty of Ghent (Dec. $1814$ ): Restored the prewar status quo; provided no gains on impressment or territory.
The Hartford Convention ( $1814–1815$ ): - New England Federalists protested the war and proposed amendments (eliminating the 3/5 clause, requiring 2/3 vote for war). - News of the victory at New Orleans made them appear unpatriotic; the Federalist party soon dissolved.

Foner’s Synthesis and Summary Terms

Long-term Impacts: The republic survived its first decade; power transferred peacefully in $1800$ ; British power in the West was broken; Tecumseh’s alliance was destroyed.
Slavery and Race: The Haitian Revolution and Gabriel’s Rebellion led to more restrictive slave laws and the entrenchment of slavery in the South.
Summary Points: - Compact Theory: U.S. created by states; states can interpose. - 12th Amendment ( $1804$ ): Separate electoral votes for president/VP. - Marbury v. Madison: Judicial review. - Louisiana Purchase: Doubled U.S. size for $15\,million$ .