MOD 1 LEC B Archaeology Methods

Anthropology Overview

What is Anthropology?

• Anthropology is the holistic study of humans, encompassing their:

  • Biology (genetics, anatomy, physiology, and evolutionary history)

  • Behavior (social structures, customs, and practices)

  • Interactions with the Environment (how humans adapt to and modify their surroundings)

  • Culture (shared beliefs, values, norms, and material possessions)

Subdisciplines of Anthropology

• Anthropology is broadly divided into four main subfields:

  • Cultural Anthropology: Examines contemporary cultures and societies.

  • Archaeology: Investigates past peoples and cultures by analyzing material remains.

  • Physical or Biological Anthropology: Studies human biological variation, evolution, and adaptation.

  • Linguistic Anthropology: Explores the role of language in human societies and cultures.

Cultural Anthropology

• Cultural anthropology focuses on the study of living human populations and their cultures.

• It explores the diversity of human social life, belief systems, and practices.

• Ethnography is a key method, involving immersive fieldwork and detailed observation.

• Key areas of study include:

  • Kinship and Social Organization

  • Religion and Belief Systems

  • Economic Systems

  • Political Systems

  • Arts and expressive culture

Linguistic Anthropology

• Linguistic anthropology studies the role of language in human societies.

• It examines how language shapes communication, social identity, and cultural beliefs.

• Areas of focus include:

  • Language structure and grammar

  • Language use in social contexts

  • Language change over time

  • Relationship between language and thought

Biological Anthropology

• Biological anthropology (also known as physical anthropology) examines the biological and evolutionary aspects of humans and their primate relatives.

• Key areas of study include:

  • Human evolution (fossil record, genetics)

  • Primate behavior and ecology

  • Human genetics and adaptation

  • Human osteology (study of bones)

  • Forensic anthropology

Archaeology

• Archaeology is the study of past human societies through the excavation and analysis of material remains.

• It provides insights into human history, social structures, and technologies.

• Key areas of focus include:

  • Prehistoric archaeology (before written records)

  • Historical archaeology (in conjunction with written records)

  • Cultural resource management

  • Archaeological methods (excavation, survey, analysis)

Archaeological Sites

• Archaeological sites are places where physical evidence of past human activity is found.

• These sites can vary widely in size, complexity, and age.

• Types of archaeological sites include:

  • Habitation sites (e.g., villages, campsites)

  • Burial sites (cemeteries, individual burials)

  • Production sites (e.g., quarries, workshops)

  • Ritual sites (e.g., temples, sacred spaces)

  • Rock art sites (petroglyphs, pictographs)

Finding Archaeological Sites

• Archaeological sites are discovered through a combination of:

  • Accidental finds (e.g., construction, looting)

  • Systematic surveys (planned searches of specific areas)

Archaeological Surveys

• Archaeological surveys involve:

  • Pedestrian surveys (walking across the landscape, looking for surface artifacts)

  • Remote sensing (using aerial or satellite imagery to identify potential sites)

  • Subsurface testing (digging small test pits to check for buried artifacts)

Mapping Archaeological Sites

• Once a site is located, it is carefully mapped using:

  • GPS (Global Positioning System) technology

  • Total stations (electronic surveying instruments)

  • Aerial photography and drone imagery

Archaeological Excavation

• Excavation is the systematic removal of soil and other materials from a site to uncover buried artifacts and features.

• Excavation is a destructive process, so careful documentation is essential.

• Excavation techniques include:

  • Stratigraphic excavation (removing layers of soil one at a time)

  • Grid excavation (dividing the site into a grid of squares)

Archaeological Context

• The context of an artifact refers to its location and association with other artifacts and features.

• Context is crucial for interpreting the meaning and significance of an artifact.

• Important aspects of context include:

  • Provenience (the exact location of an artifact within the site)

  • Association (the relationship between an artifact and other finds)

  • Matrix (the material surrounding an artifact)

Screening and Lab Work

• Excavated soil is typically screened to recover small artifacts.

• Artifacts are then taken to the lab for:

  • Cleaning and preservation

  • Identification and classification

  • Analysis and interpretation

Recognizing Artifacts

• An artifact is any object that has been modified or used by humans.

• Artifacts can be made of a variety of materials, including:

  • Stone (lithic artifacts)

  • Bone

  • Ceramics

  • Metal

  • Glass

Stone Tools

• Stone tools are among the earliest and most common types of artifacts found at archaeological sites.

• Stone tools were made by:

  • Flaking (chipping off pieces of stone to create a sharp edge)

  • Grinding (shaping stone by rubbing it against another surface)

Distinguishing Artifacts from Natural Objects

• It can be difficult to distinguish between artifacts and naturally occurring objects.

• Key indicators of human modification include:

  • Evidence of flaking or grinding

  • Distinctive shapes or patterns

  • Association with other artifacts or features