Task Analysis & Direct Instruction

Task Analysis & Direct Instruction (DI)

• Task Analysis = breaking down a complex skill into smaller component skills.
• Direct Instruction (DI) originally articulated by Engelmann & Becker (1964).

Core Design Principles of DI (Spencer, 2021)

• Identify generalisable patterns to teach.
• Sequence content developmentally & logically.
• Organise content into “tracks/strands.”
• Adopt/build assessments that mirror the generalisable strategies.
• Determine instructional groupings (whole-class, small group, 1-to-1, etc.).
• Script instructions—plan wording, order & pacing.
• Prioritise learner responding; minimise teacher talk.
• Order instructional trials for maximal discrimination.
• Engineer transfer of stimulus control (prompt-fade systems).
• Plan for corrections (error-handling procedures).

Where DI Appears in Speech-Language Intervention

• Narrative intervention—e.g., Story Champs (Peterson & Spencer, 2011-2023; curriculum, 2016).
• Complex sentence treatment (Balthazar & Scott, 2018).
• Robust vocabulary instruction (Beck & McKeown, 2013).

Defining & Analysing “Task”

• Formula (Rees 2001): $TASK = Materials + Procedure + Feedback \pm Technique$
• “Cup of competence” metaphor (Snow & Douglas 2017): task performance depends on how ‘full’ the child’s knowledge/skill cup is.
• Psycholinguistic Approach (Stackhouse & Wells 1997): analyses input → underlying processes → output to pinpoint breakdown level for children with SSD/literacy issues.

Scaffolds, Supports & Intervention Architecture

Key Terminology

• Principles – statements about conditions that foster learning.
• Plans – outline of what, when, how, by whom, where.
• Procedures – concrete clinician (or agent) actions to make learning happen.

“Teaching & Learning Moment” (A-B-C)

• $A$ (Antecedent): Agent provides instructional stimulus.
• $B$ (Behaviour): Child responds.
• $C$ (Consequence): Agent supplies feedback/reinforcement.

Levels of Learning Support (continuum)

• Simultaneous production with clinician.
• Imitation (immediate / delayed).
• Modelling.
• Prompts & Cues.
• Self-correction.
• Spontaneous production.
• Continuum mapped on clinician vs client support/independence (Pearce 2008).

Production Cues (McLeod & Baker 2017; Secord 2007; Passy 2010)

• Auditory models – simultaneous, immediate, or delayed imitation.
• Phonetic cues:
• Visual-phonetic (watch articulators).
• Verbal-phonetic (describe placement/airflow).
• Tactile-phonetic (touch cues on face/throat).
• Manual guidance (clinician moves articulators—rare, Secord).
• Prosodic cues – altered rate, stress (e.g., turtle/snail icons to reduce speed).
• Orthographic cues – display graphemes / written words.
• Shaping – successive approximations towards target.
• Gestural cues – hand signs (e.g., Cued Articulation).
• Facilitating phonetic environments – choose easiest coarticulatory context.
• Metaphors – ‘ch’ = spray bottle, ‘b’ = noisy pop, etc.

Gestural Cues (Passy 2010)

• Handshapes & movements representing consonant & vowel features to make articulatory actions visible.

Motivation in Speech-Language Pathology (SLP)

• Definition: “Driving force behind behaviour that leads us to pursue some things and avoid others” (Burton 2022, p. 601).

Theoretical Perspectives

• Behaviourist – behaviours that obtain reinforcement are repeated.
• Cognitive (Expectancy-Value) – motivation = value of goal × belief in attainability (Didion & Toste 2022).

Variables Affecting Client Motivation

• Age & developmental stage.
• Attention capacity.
• Personality & temperament.
• Previous therapy / learning experiences.
• Person-centred philosophy and collaborative goal setting crucial.