AMSCO 7.5

The British Government in India has systematically deprived the Indian populace of their freedom.
Economic, political, cultural, and spiritual degradation has occurred under colonial rule.
Statement from the Indian National Congress: Declaration of Purna Swaraj (Independence Day Resolution, January 26, 1930).

How did continuities and changes in territorial holdings create tensions after World War I?

Many countries faced economic crises following the war, exacerbating existing territorial disputes.
European powers (including Japan) generally maintained or expanded control over their colonial territories.
Simultaneously, anti-imperial resistance increased in Asia and Africa, part of a broader global trend, including the disintegration of European empires, the rise of communism in Russia, and escalating anti-immigrant sentiments in the U.S.

The spread of nationalism, evidenced by movements in Turkey, China, and India, was notable.
Significant examples include:
- Turkey's quest for self-determination.
- The May Fourth Movement in China.
- The activities of the Indian National Congress.

The ramifications of the war were unequal across different regions:
- United States: Economically prosperous due to selling war supplies and agricultural products to Allied powers.
- European Powers: Economically devastated, particularly those that faced significant destruction during the war.

Nationalist movements had been gaining momentum in South Asia and West Africa prior to the war.
The war invigorated hopes for independence among colonial populations who had contributed significantly to the Allied military efforts.
Colonial troops' experience during the war demonstrated that European powers like Britain and France were not invulnerable.
Despite German propaganda predicting widespread colonial revolts, localized rebellions occurred, such as:
- A revolt in French West Africa between November 1915 and September 1916, uniting villages to expel French forces, ultimately quelled with considerable cost to both sides.
- A recognition by the French of their responsibilities towards their colonies emerged from this conflict.

Many colonial soldiers nurtured expectations of achieving self-determination under Wilson's Fourteen Points post-war promises.
Hopes persisted that contributions to the war would warrant respect and initiate de-colonization processes.
However, the peace conference's leaders (Big Three: David Lloyd George, Woodrow Wilson, Georges Clemenceau) only granted self-determination to Eastern European white nations, while colonies in Africa and Asia remained subject to European control.
The League of Nations mandates were established, disregarding earlier promises to Arab rebels of the Ottoman Empire, leading to the perpetuation of colonialism.

The League of Nations outlined in Article 22 that colonized people required "tutelage" from more advanced nations:
- Colonial territories such as Cameroon transferred to France and Britain.
- Japan gained control over former German territories in the Pacific.

The collapse of the Ottoman Empire resulted in the division of its territories into League of Nations mandates:
- Palestine, Transjordan, Lebanon, Syria, and Iraq emerged as mandate territories under British and French rule.
The Balfour Declaration (1917) pledged support for establishing a home for Jews in Palestine, increasing tensions in the region.

The disappointment from the Paris Conference galvanized anti-colonial activists:
- The Indian National Congress, formed in the late 19th century, gained strength as a proponent of independence.

In Spring 1919, a protest in Amritsar escalated tragically when British forces killed hundreds in response to a peaceful demonstration against unjust laws, radicalizing the Indian independence movement.

Mohandas Gandhi emerged as a central figure advocating for non-violent resistance through the 'satyagraha' movement, emphasizing civil disobedience against colonial laws.
His leadership during the Salt March of 1930 symbolized Indian resistance against British economic exploitation through salt regulations.

During the independence movement in India, ideological rifts emerged regarding national identity:
- Mohammad Ali Jinnah's advocacy for a separate Muslim state (now Pakistan) reflected divisions, especially in fears of Muslim marginalization.

Although not formally colonized, Korea, China, and Japan faced European pressures fostering desires for self-determination:

Following Japan's annexation of Korea in 1910, massive protests erupted on March 1, 1919, demonstrating Korean nationalist sentiment despite brutal suppression.