Apartheid

The Nature of the Apartheid System

  • Definition: The apartheid system was a comprehensive political, economic, and social ideology established in South Africa designed to maintain control by the white minority over the majority population.

  • Effects by 1960: By 1960, the consequences of apartheid were pervasive, affecting every aspect of South African life.

Political, Economic, Social, and Demographic Issues in 1960

Political

  • Dominance of the National Party (NP): The NP, which came to power in 1948, focused on "apartheid" and Afrikaner nationalism, consolidating all political power into the hands of the white minority by 1960.

  • Population Registration Act of 1950: This act officially classified all South Africans by race, forming the legal foundation for apartheid.

  • Sharpeville Massacre: Following this pivotal event in 1960, the government banned major black opposition parties like the ANC and PAC, suppressing peaceful protest and driving resistance underground.

  • Referendum of October 1960: A narrow approval from white voters led to South Africa becoming a republic in 1961, thus exiting the Commonwealth.

Economic

  • Labor Control: The economy was heavily reliant on a controlled labor supply from the black majority, with policies such as the Pass Laws and influx control regulating movement.

  • Employment Restrictions: Black individuals were not allowed to own land in "white areas" and faced exclusion from skilled jobs.

  • Economic Sustainability: Despite strengths in certain sectors, the economy was fundamentally unsustainable, increasingly pressured by international sanctions.

Social

  • Racial Segregation: Society was strictly divided; laws governed public space segregation (e.g., buses, hospitals, schools).

  • Interracial Relations: Marriage and sexual relations across races were criminalized.

  • Bantu Education Act of 1953: Designed to provide inferior education for black students, this act prepared them for a life of manual labor rather than academic or professional careers.

Demographic

  • Population Dynamics: A minority white population ruled a vast majority of black, coloured, and Indian people.

  • Group Areas Act of 1950: This act forcibly relocated millions of non-white South Africans, resulting in widespread social disruption and destruction of multiracial communities.

Apartheid: Ideology, Policy, and Practice

Ideology

  • Concept: Apartheid was not only racial prejudice but also a full-fledged ideology of white supremacy and separate development.

  • Afrikaner Nationalism: The NP promoted the idea that distinct racial groups, seen as separate nations, should develop independently, with whites portrayed as the paternal 'civilised' group, justifying the denial of political rights to black South Africans.

Policy

  • Legislative Foundation: Apartheid was codified into various laws, including:

    • Population Registration Act: Established racial classifications.

    • Group Areas Act: Dictated residential areas based on race.

    • Bantu Education Act: Ensured a subpar education for black students.

    • Promotion of Bantu Self-Government Act of 1959: Created the Bantusans or homelands.

  • Comprehensiveness: These laws influenced all aspects of life, including residency, employment, and marriage choices.

Practice

  • Oppressive Mechanisms: Apartheid led to severe oppression, with laws like the Pass Laws requiring black South Africans to carry passbooks, subjecting them to arrest if in "white areas" without a permit.

  • Enforcement: Security forces had extensive powers to enforce apartheid laws, resulting in intimidation, violence, and detention without trial.

Impact of Apartheid on Rural and Urban Communities

Urban Communities

  • Forced Removals: Black urban residents were forcibly displaced to overcrowded townships, far removed from city centers, escalating transport costs and isolation.

  • Temporary Status: Black individuals in cities were regarded as visitors without ownership rights or property.

  • Police Fear: Residents lived in constant fear of police raids and passbook checks (referred to as "dompas").

  • Sanitation Syndrome: Authorities used claims linking black urban populations to disease and crime as justification for forced relocations.

Rural Communities

  • Bantustan System: The establishment of homelands led to impoverished and overpopulated areas devoid of resources or economic opportunities.

  • Forced Migration: Millions were expelled from their ancestral lands to these Bantustans without notice, compromising family and community identity.

  • Labor Reservoirs: The Bantustans served as sources of cheap labor for predominantly white-owned industries in South Africa.

National Resistance to and the End of Apartheid

National Resistance to Apartheid

The Role of the ANC and PAC
African National Congress (ANC)

  • Founding: Established in 1912, the ANC initially sought non-violent resistance via petitions and passive protests.

  • Growth: Its membership surged during the 1950s, notably after the Defiance Campaign in 1952, which openly defied apartheid laws.

  • Transformation Post-Sharpeville: Following the Sharpeville Massacre, the ANC was banned and shifted towards armed resistance, envisioning a democratic, non-racial South Africa.

Pan Africanist Congress (PAC)

  • Formation: Created in 1959 by discontented ANC members, the PAC promoted a distinctly African approach, rejecting multi-racialism with the slogan "Africa for the Africans."

  • Anti-pass Protests: The PAC led significant protests against pass laws, subsequently facing a ban after the Sharpeville Massacre.

Significance of the Sharpeville Massacre

  • Date: The Sharpeville Massacre occurred on March 21, 1960, during a peaceful protest against pass laws.

  • Casualties: Police opened fire on demonstrators, resulting in 69 deaths and over 180 injuries.

  • Impact on Resistance: The massacre shattered hopes for non-violent change, compelling both ANC and PAC to embrace armed struggle.

  • Government Repression: The regime responded with violent repression, banning key opposition groups and forcing them underground.

  • International Condemnation: The massacre marked a critical point leading to global condemnation and the initiation of sanctions against South Africa.

Mandela and Umkhonto we Sizwe (MK)

Creation of MK

  • Establishment: Following the ANC's ban, Nelson Mandela co-founded Umkhonto we Sizwe in 1961 as its armed wing.

  • Nature of Resistance: MK initially focused on sabotage against state infrastructure, responsibly avoiding civilian casualties.

  • Mandela's Argument: Mandela contended that peaceful resistance had failed due to government violence, positioning armed struggle as the only viable option.

Rivonia Trial, Imprisonment, and 'Free Mandela' Campaign
Rivonia Trial (1963-64)

  • Context: Mandela and other MK leaders were arrested and charged with sabotage and conspiracy against the state.

  • Mandela's Speech: In his "Speech from the Dock," Mandela reaffirmed his commitment to a democratic society, famously stating, "It is an ideal for which I am prepared to die."

  • Verdict: The trial concluded with Mandela and his associates receiving life sentences instead of the anticipated death penalty.

Imprisonment on Robben Island

  • Duration: Mandela spent 18 out of 27 years in Robben Island, a high-security prison for political prisoners.

  • Resistance Impact: His imprisonment significantly hampered the internal resistance movement.

'Free Mandela' Campaign

  • Global Mobilization: Beginning in the 1980s, this campaign sought to secure Mandela's release and brought significant international attention to the anti-apartheid struggle.

Significance of Stephen Biko and the Black Consciousness Movement

Stephen Biko

  • Founding of BCM: Biko led the Black Consciousness Movement in the late 1960s, promoting pride and dignity among black citizens.

  • Philosophy: The BCM underscored that psychological liberation was essential for political freedom, encapsulated in the phrase "Black is Beautiful."

  • Mobilization: The movement inspired a new generation, especially students, playing a critical role in the Soweto Uprising in 1976.

  • Martyrdom: Biko's death in police custody in 1977 transformed him into a symbol of resistance, galvanizing domestic and international opposition to apartheid.

Repression and Control by South African Governments

Tactics of Repression and Oppression

  • Police State: The apartheid state utilized an extensive police and intelligence apparatus to monitor and undermine opposition.

  • State of Emergency: Frequent declarations granted security forces extensive powers for arrests and detentions without trial, legalizing torture.

  • Banning Orders: Individuals and organizations could be banned from public life, restricting movement, communication, and litigation.

  • Extra-judicial Killings: Notable instances included the torture and murder of Stephen Biko.

Role of South African Security Forces

  • Primary Enforcers: The South African Police (SAP) and Defence Force (SADF) brutally enforced apartheid, executing mass arrests and violent crackdowns on protests (e.g., Sharpeville and Soweto massacres).

Role and Significance of Bantustans

  • Bantustan Strategy: The Bantustans were central to apartheid control, designed to:

    • Deny Citizenship: Strip black South Africans of citizenship and justify exclusion from the political process.

    • Control Migration: Confine black people to designated areas to create a cheap labor pool.

    • Divide and Rule: Fragment the black populace along tribal lines to weaken collective resistance.

Relations with Neighbouring African Countries

  • Destabilization Tactics: South Africa sought to undermine neighboring countries (e.g., Angola, Mozambique, Zimbabwe) that supported anti-apartheid movements, through military interventions and support for proxy wars.

International Responses

Sanctions and Boycotts

  • UN Involvement: The United Nations imposed various sanctions and cultural/sporting boycotts against South Africa, significantly isolating the country.

  • Boycott Movement: Grassroots movements, especially in the West, pushed for stronger governmental actions against apartheid.

Anti-Apartheid Movement

  • Third-party Activism: Activism particularly in Western nations was crucial in pressuring corporations and governments to divest from South Africa, further escalating the regime’s economic crisis.

End of Apartheid

Complex Interplay of Factors

Political, Economic, and Social Factors

  • Internal Crisis: Continuous protests, strikes, and civil unrest rendered governance increasingly difficult.

  • Economic Collapse: International sanctions coupled with internal unrest contributed to economic decline.

  • Business Pressure: Both local and global industries advocated for ending apartheid, citing its impracticality.

  • Failure of Repression: Efforts to quell dissent only intensified resistance movements.

International Factors

  • End of Cold War: The collapse of the Soviet Union diminished fears of communism that had been used as a pretext for apartheid.

  • Increased Pressure: The U.S. and Britain’s decreased geopolitical reliance on South Africa led to heightened pressure for reforms.

  • Ongoing Sanctions: As sanctions crippled the economy, sustaining the existing government became untenable.

  • "Free Mandela" Campaign: The global initiative put immense pressure on the apartheid regime, further isolating it.

Transition to Democracy

  • Challenges for the National Party: The NP faced opposition from conservative factions resistant to reform during negotiations.

  • ANC's Position: The ANC needed to unify its disparate factions while proving its governance viability and ensuring minority protections.

  • Political Violence: The transition was marred by extensive violence and the risk of civil conflict, with tense negotiations like CODESA frequently stalling.

  • Major Milestone: The release of Nelson Mandela in 1990 and the subsequent negotiations culminated in South Africa's first democratic elections in 1994, thereby marking the formal end of apartheid and the establishment of a multiracial South Africa.