Problem Solving and Intelligence

What is a hypothetical construct?

An explanatory variable, not directly observable and difficult to measure

What are 2 assumptions that psychologists make in what intelligence involves?

Ability to perform cognitive tasks and the capacity to learn from experience and adapt

What is an operational definition?

A clearly defined description of a construct so that the construct can be observed and measured

What is Sternberg’s operational definition of intelligence?

The cognitive ability of an individual to learn from experience, reason well, remember important information, and cope with the demands of daily living.

What are the 3 aspects of successful intelligence that Sternberg proposed?

Analytic intelligence, creative intelligence, and practical intelligence

What is analytic intelligence?

Analyze, evaluate, judge, or compare and contrast. Academic problem solving and computation.

What is creative intelligence?

Using existing knowledge to find new solutions.

What is practical intelligence?

​​Applying abilities to the problems of every-day life

What is believed to be a reliable indicator of intelligence?

Problem-solving ability

What are 2 forms of reasoning to solve problems?

Deductive reasoning and inductive reasoning

What is deductive reasoning?

Ideas and general information to a specific conclusion

What is inductive reasoning?

Specific fact to broader generalizations and theories

What is deductive reasoning in the scientific method?

Start with a general idea with the world, and generate a specific, testable hypothesis about the data we expect to obtain

What is inductive reasoning in the scientific method?

Through experimentation, we collect data and relate it to our general theory in some meaningful way

What is an insight problem?

A category of problems designed to test your ability to think outside the box

What is functional fixedness?

Our difficulty seeing alternative uses for common objects.

What is a well-defined problem?

A problem in which the starting position, allowable rules, and end goal are clearly stated.

What is an ill-defined problem?

A problem in which the starting position, allowable rules, and end goal are not clearly stated. Most problems encountered in daily life are ill-defined.

What is the reliability of a test?

Extent to which repeated testing produces consistent results

What is the validity of a test?

The extent to which a test measures what the researcher claims to be measuring

What is the test-rest method? What is a limitation?

A measure of reliability that examines the consistency of scores on the same test taken at multiple different points in time. If scores are consistent, the test is said to have high reliability. However, vulnerable to practice effect.

What is interrater reliability?

Degree of agreement between multiple observers witnessing the same event.

What is predictive validity?

The extent to which a score on a test can be used to predict future behaviour.

How did Francis Galton attempt to measure intelligence?

Measure reaction time. He is considered the father of intelligence testing.

Who created the first valid intelligence test?

Alfred Binet

What is ‘g’?

A measure of general intelligence that underlies specific types of intelligence. This measure was coined by Spearman.

What are the most popular intelligence tests today? What were they modelled on (and who made it)?

Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale (WAIS) and Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children (WISC). IQ test by Alfred Binet.

How are IQ scores assigned?

Based on large samples. Assigned around a perfect normal distribution with a standard deviation of 15.

What did Howard Gardner propose?

8 different types of intelligence, independent from others. Verbal, mathematical, musical, spatial, kinesthetic, interpersonal, intrapersonal, and naturalistic.

What are the limitations of Howard Gardner’s theory?

Convincing evidence is lacking for multiple intelligences. Ignores that people who do well on one type of intelligence test are very likely to do well on others.

What is an aptly precise research question about intelligence (about nature and nurture)?

Do the individual differences in human IQ result more from genetic or environmental differences?

What is a good way to examine the role of genetics and the environment in intelligence?

Correlational studies studying identical (100% identical genes) and fraternal twins (50% identical genes).

What are scientists’ findings in these twin studies? What is the limitation?

IQ measures between identical twins is +0.8, while fraternal twins is +0.6. Suggests the role of genetics. However, the correlation for fraternal twins is lower when raised apart in different homes, suggesting environmental factors also play a role.

What happens when placing identical twins in different environments like in adoption?

High level of correlation, suggesting strong role of genetics in intelligence. However, a researcher can not possibly consider all environmental similarities and differences in the different homes.

What are adoption studies?

A research method in which an adopted child is compared to their biological parents and adopted parents to assess genetic and environmental influences on a particular trait.

What can be concluded about the role of genetics and environment in intelligence?

Both genetics and environment plays a role, and the relative influence of each is yet to be fully determined.

What is the Flynn effect?

The observation that raw IQ scores have been on the rise since 1932.

What is Flynn’s and others’ justification for the Flynn effect?

Increased quality of schooling. Increased access to information and ideas through books, TV, and internet. Others suggest increased nutrition and health.

How is the Flynn effect distributed across IQ scores?

More pronounced for low IQ scores than high IQ scores, suggesting that factors like nutrition and access to healthcare are improving for the most disadvantaged groups.

What was Piaget’s theory for intellectual development?

Children are active learners (by manipulating and exploring environments, incorporating information into what they know)

What is schema?

A mental framework for interpreting the world around us.

What is assimilation?

Incorporating new information into existing schemas.

What is accommodation?

Modifying existing schemas to fit incompatible information.

What are the 4 sequential stages of cognitive development in children that Piaget proposed?

Sensorimotor stage, preoperational stage, concrete operational stage, and formal operational stage.

What is in each stage and how must a child move to the next stage?

Each stage is characterized by specific abilities and limitations. Child must undergo some change in schema before moving onto the next stage.

What is the sensorimotor stage?

0-2 years. Child recognizes that they can affect change in the environment. Milestone is object permanence (realization that objects continue to exist when no longer visible).

What is the preoperational stage?

2-7 years. Overcome egocentrism (understanding another perspective), seriation (logically order objects), reversible relationships (recognizing relationships from both POVs), and conservation (ex. Volume of fluid being conserved in a different container).

What is the concrete operational stage?

7-12 years. Abstract thinking and reasoning (based on hypotheses).

What is the formal operational stage?

12+ years. Often develop an interest in games, books, and shows involving fantasy and role-playing. Can understand theoretical worlds.

What are 2 flaws of Piaget’s theories?

Development of skills out of order (Decalage). Reliance on language abilities for many tasks.

What is confirmation bias?

Tendency to seek out information that supports our hypothesis.

In what contexts is confirmation bias lessened?

More contextual scenarios.

What is a heuristic?

A mental shortcut to help us make decisions fast and reduce our cognitive load.

What is the availability heuristic?

Our tendency to make decisions based on the information that is most quickly available to us.

What is the representativeness heuristic?

Our tendency to assume that what we are seeing is representative of the larger category we have in our mind.

What is the availability heuristic used for and what does it rely on? What is its flaw?

To judge the frequency that an event occurs. Rely on how easily examples come to mind. Err because many things influence how readily available examples are.

What is the representativeness heuristic used for and what does it rely on? What is its flaw?

Judge probability that an event belongs to a larger category. Rely on resemblance between the event and other events in the category. Err because not all category members are the same.

How are gamblers prone to the representativeness heuristic?

Believing that past spins influence what comes next. In reality, each spin is independent.

What are 2 challenges in studying intelligence?

Providing an operational definition. Measuring intelligence.

What is bounded rationality?

Idea that humans have cognitive limitations, preventing us from being fully rational.

What are biases?

Mistakes that influence judgement

What is an example of decision architecture, which triggers higher participation rates?

Opt-out organ policies result in higher participation rates than opt-in.