Full Geo Paper 2

urbanisation

an increase in the proportion of people living in urban areas compared to rural areas

Levels of urbanisation between HICs vs LICs

highest in HICS

lowest in LICs

What happened to the world population and the urban population between 1950 and 2015 and why

World pop doubled

Urban pop more than tripled

due to decline of industry in HICs, which shifted to NEEs and LICs as they have cheaper labour and land - led to industrial growth in NEEs

describe the general pathway of urbanisation

developing - low levels of urbanisation

emerging - economic take off begins, rapid rural - urban migration

emerged - maturing economy, rates of urbanisation continue to rise

developed - rate of urbanisation levels off and most now live in towns

counter urbanisation - people start to move to smaller towns and cities & semi-rural areas

re-urbanisation - people move back into inner-city areas that previously experienced population decline

urban area

a built up area i.e. towns, cities

rural area

an area of countryside

millionaire cities

cities with > 1 million people

megacities

cities with over 10 million

(20 of them in 2009, 15 of them being in LICs)

world cities

cities which have a major impact on world events

major financial/political/cultural places

examples of world cities

London

NYC

Hong Kong

Beijing

Paris

Dubai

Rates of urbanisation between HICs LICs and NEEs

slowest/declining in HICs

rapid in NEEs

fastest in LICs

Reasons for rate of urbanisation being slow in HICs

many people in HICs are being pushed away from overcrowded cities into rural settlements

HICs are already developed, so their urbanisation has already happened

HICs tend to have good transport and communication networks; therefore, people can live in rural areas and commute to cities or work from home

examples of HICs

UK

Germany

Japan

America

Reasons for rate of urbanisation being rapid in NEEs

key trade hub cities are seeing investment from government and TNCs

Trade such as finance, electronics and manufactured goods

e.g. Lagos, Nigeria

examples of NEEs

India

Brazil

China

Reasons for rate of urbanisation being fastest in LICs

cities experience higher natural increase levels in population

Push-pull factors lead to high rates of rural urban migration

New economic development is being focused in the big cities via low cost manufacturing of textiles garments and bases

examples of LICs

Vietnam

Bangladesh

Phillipines

main causes of urbanisation

rural-urban migration (push and pull factors)

natural increase (when BR > DR)

speed of economic development

How does natural increase affect urbanisation?

increases the urban population compared to the rural population

accounts for around 60% of urban pop. growth

push factors

the reality of the current situation for the migrant - what makes them consider leaving the place of origin

pull factors

factors affecting why the migrant wants to move to the desired place

examples of push factors

no more jobs

deforestation

not as advanced tech

poor QoL

poor education

poverty

food/water insecurity

examples of pull factors

higher paying jobs

more tech (advanced)

better QoL

Good education

better opportunities in urban areas in LICs due to industry development

how does rural - urban migration affect urbanisation

push factors make people want to leave their place of origin and pull factors make them want to go to a different place.

this motivates people to migrate from rural areas to urban areas thus increasing the urban pop.

How does the speed of economic development affect urbanisation?

economic growth drives urbanisation

The faster the growth of secondary and tertiary employment sectors, the faster the growth of urbanisation

Reasons for megacity growth

Economic development

multiplier effect

economies of scale

population growth

How does economic development affect megacity growth?

encourages population growth - more wants for goods/services

How does pop. growth affect megacity growth?

Young people more drawn to live there due to opportunities

Internal growth as said people have children, sustaining pop. growth

How does economies of scale affect megacity growth?

cheaper to buy goods and services in 1 place than spread across several cities

Financial savings for local governments in respect of infrastructure provision

Communication and transport are centralised, making savings in time and money

How does the multiplier effect affect megacity growth?

As a city prospers more people and businesses are drawn to it

this encourages inward investment and people buying from local businesses

as they grow there is a greater need for skills and labour leading to job growth
the cycle continues

location of Rio

located on the SE coast of Brazil, which is in the North of South America

global importance of Rio

landmarks e.g. Christ the Redeemer statue

global events e.g. 2014 world cup, 2016 olympics

exports - iron ore, petroleum, coffee, sugar

energy and finance hub - headquarters for large oil, mining, finance companies

regional importance of Rio

economic centre of SE Brazil (produces 5% of Brazil’s GDP)

employment opportunities - attracts migrants from rural areas and poorer regions like NE brazil

has some of Brazil’s best universities, hospitals and research centres

largest economy in S. America

cultural capital - famous for carnival and football

land use in Rio

north zone - the city’s main industrial and port area, city’s international airport and football stadium here, includes areas of favelas

centro - oldest part, city’s central business district and main shopping area, financial centre with the HQ’s of Petrobras and CVBB (brazil’s largest oil and mining companies)

west zone - changed from lower class area to wealthy coastal suburb with luxury apartments, shopping malls, recreational areas and tourist facilities, industrial area has low quality housing, main olymipic located here

south zone - developed after tunnels were cut through the mountains, main tourist hotels and beaches, e.g. Copacabana

causes of rapid urban growth in Rio

migrant have come to rio from many different places, such as:

from other parts of brazil such as the amazon basin

from other countries in s. america, such as argentina or bolivia

more recent migrants have come from s. korea and china for new business opportunities

common language attracts people from portugal

rio’s industry attracts skilled workers from countries like USA and UK

social opportunities in rio

access to healthcare - Rio has some of Brazil’s best hospitals and clinics, especially in the South zone and centro

education - there are many primary and secondary schools, universities and research centres. government has built new schools in favelas.

energy - nearly all homes in Rio have access to energy - city has built new hydro-electric power plants.

water supply - over 90% of Rio has access to mains water - large water treatment plants set up.

economic opportunities in rio

industrial growth - e.g oil refinery, ship building, chemicals, steel, food processing; oil + energy industry - discovery of oil fields off the coast - brought major investment; created jobs in engineering, construction, services.

tourism - creates jobs in hotels, restaurants, retail, transport

infrasturcture + construction - major projects e.g 2016 olympics/world cup created employment in construction and transport.

service + finance - e.g banks, media companies, multinational HQs

social challenges of Rio

healthcare

education

water supply

energy

Social problems of Rio - healthcare

In 2013 only 55% of the city had a local family health clinic

Very poor services for the pregnant and the elderly - in Ciudada de Deas, only 60% of pregnant females get medical care and avg. LE is 45

Social problems of Rio - education

Only half of all children continue education post 14 yrs of age

many children drop out and some get involved in drug trafficking

reasons for low level of school enrollment include:

shortage of nearby schools

lack of family money

shortage of teachers due to poor pay and training

Social problems of Rio - water supply

around 12% of Rio’s population don’t have access to running water

37% of water lost via leaky pipes fraud and illegal access

drought has caused further water access issues

Social problems of Rio - energy

Rio suffers frequent blackouts due to electricity shortage

Olympics made this worse

Many people in the favelas illegally get electricity by tapping into the main supply which is very unsafe

Solutions to Rio social problems - healthcare

medical staff took a health kit into peoples homes and were able to detect 20 different diseases and treat them in a favela in Santa Marta

Solutions to Rio social problems - education

encouraging locals to volunteer to help in school

giving school grants to help poor families help meet the cost of education for children

pay for sports lessons in Rocinha

open private university of Rocinha

Solutions to Rio social problems - water supply

improving quality and quantity of water in favelas

e.g. 7 new treatment plants were built between 19988 and 2014

over 300km of pipes were laid

95% of the population had a mains water supply

Solutions to Rio social problems - energy

installing 60km of new power lines

building a new nuclear generator

developing the new Simplicio hydro-electric complex which will increase rio’s supply of electricity by 30% - took 6 years to build and cost over $2 billion

Positive economic aspects of Rio

Large national and abroad companies attracted to Rio

2nd most industrial centre in Brazil

provides >6% of all employment in Brazil

growing number of jobs provided by service industries

oil discovered off the coast encouraged growth of oil related activities

many jobs e.g. services oil ports retail

economic challenges in rio

unemployment

crime

economic challenges in rio - unemployment

deep recession in 2015 increased unemployment

richest 1% earns the same as the poorest 50% which is 13% of the total GDP

most work happens in the informal economy - illegally - such as street vendors, labourers, maids - they do not pay any taxes

bad education

economic challenges in rio - crime

e.g murder, kidnapping, carjacking and armed assault

powerful gangs control the favelas

solution to economic challenges in rio - unemployment

for bad education - courses for adults who left education

solution to economic challenges in rio - crime

in 2013, pacifying police units (UPPs) where established to reclaim favelas from drug dealers

the police have taken control of the crime - dominated Complexo do Alemao and 30 smaller favelas

environmental challenges in Rio

air pollution and congestion

water pollution

waste pollution

Environmental Rio problems - air pollution and congestion

Estimated to cause 5k deaths a year

city is often covered in smog

happens due to:

exhaust fumes from heavy traffic

mist from atlantic mixes with vehicle exhaust fumes

rio is the most congested city in S.America - number of cars increased by 40% in the last decade

Environmental Rio problems - water pollution

Guanabara Bay is heavily polluted causing a major wildlife threat

commercial fishing has declined by 90% in the last 20 yrs

happens due to:

rivers are polluted by open sewers in favelas

over 50 tonnes of industrial waste enters the bay daily

over 200 tonnes of raw sewage pours into the bay daily

oil spills in Petrobras oil refinery

Environmental Rio problems - waste pollution

many favelas are built on steep slopes with few proper roads making access for waste collection companies difficult

most waste is dumped - pollutes the water system

causes diseases such as cholera and encourages rats

Solutions to environmental Rio problems - air pollution

expansion of metro system under Guanabara bay to South Zone and Barra da Tijuca

New toll roads into city centre to reduce congestion

making coastal roads one-way during rush hours, to improve traffic flow

Solutions to environmental Rio problems - water pollution

overseas aid has been used to reduce the amount of sewage released into the bay

12 new sewage works have been built since 2004 at a cost of $68 million

ships are fined for illegally discharging waste into the bay

5km of new sewage pipes have been installed around badly polluted areas

Solutions to environmental Rio problems - waste pollution

A power plant has been setup near the University of Rio using methane from 30 tonnes of rotting rubbish a day

this provides electricity for 1k homes

informal settlements

unplanned and unregulated housing with little sanitary facilities freshwater or reliable energy supply

Where are favelas usually located in rio

on the NE of Rio towards Guanabaro Bay

they are mainly on the edge of the city on steep hillsides - normally on marginal land - land that is not typically used

describe the growth of favelas in rio

25% of rio’s residents live in favelas because of rural-urban migration

people leave the rainy amazon and drought - hit parts of NE brazil for a better life in the city

challenges of living in favelas in rio

housing

crime

healthcare

services

unemployment

Challenges of favelas - Housing

they are poorly constructed due to them being built illegally with basic materials such as iron, broken bricks and plastic sheets - most of them are built on slopes and can cause landslides after rain storms

In 2010 224 were killed and 13k lost their homes when houses were swept away

there is limited road access due to the steepness

Challenges of favelas - Crime

murder rate of 20 per 1000 people - very high

drug gangs dominate many favelas and many inhabitants distrust the police because of violence and corruption

Challenges of favelas - Services

In non improved favelas, 12% of homes don’t have running water, 30% lack electricity, 50% don’t have sewage connections

Drinking water is very inaccessible and is obtained by tapping into a city water main. Several daily trips need to be made to get this

Challenges of favelas - Healthcare

Population density of 37000 per km²

infant mortality can be as high as 50 per 1000

waste can build up in streets increasing chance of disease

burning waste creates smoke which is dangerous to health

Challenges of favelas - Employment

unemployment rates as high as 25%

employment is poorly paid - irregular jobs in favelas

avg income is less than £75 a month

Aim of the 1994-2008 Favela Bairro project

to provide essential services to residents and to recognise them formally as neighbourhoods of the city

ways the Favela Bairro project improved housing conditions in favelas

electricity cables

bathroom with toilet

underground sewer

streets improved

living and sleeping quarters with concrete floors

breeze-blocks

Improving favela housing - electricity cables

the cables are government provided

people don’t need to illegally install electricity and its less risky

provides light and power - can be used for cooking and other appliances

Improving favela housing - bathroom with toilet

linked directly to sewer systems disposing of waste safely which reduces spread of diseases such as cholera

Improving favela housing - streets improved

streetlights and pavements are more accessible to people leading to less crime rate due to lights

also allows for waste disposal trucks to come to houses improving sanitation

Improving favela housing - underground sewer

underground sewer which safely disposes of waste reducing spread of diseases such as cholera

Improving favela housing - living and sleeping quarters with concrete floor

provides a safe and strong foundation in a house

reduces chances of the floor breaking and makes it easier to clean

Improving favela housing - breeze blocks

stable and sturdy building blocks used to build houses leading to them being less susceptible to landslides

Large Scale Improvements

new settlements can be constructed to act as alternative magnets for rural urban pop.

high rise blocks, schools, health centres, and industries for development

Self help schemes

legal ownership of land is granted

lcoal authorities help residents to move into homes by:

grants/loans offered to finance home improvement

building material supplied

collective building with help from local authority to build schools, health centres etc.

cooperation between residents to organise waste collection

Site and Service

Land is identified for the scheme.

Water sanitation and infrastructure laid down by local authorities in advance of build

individual plots marked out

people then arrive to build using own materials

what type of service is the favela bairro project

site and service

The Favela Bairro Project - social improvements

adult education classes to boost literary levels

services to help people cope who have had problems i.e. abuse drugs alcohol

31 neighbourhood community health programs established

The Favela Bairro Project - economic improvements

residents can legally own their properties by application

training schemes so that people can learn new skills to get better jobs

addition of cable car system - inhabitants are given 1 free return ticket per day from the city

The Favela Bairro Project - environmental improvements

widening and paving of streets for easier access

removal of homes of dangerously steep slopes

wooden buildings have been replaced by brick ones

location of London

london is in the south east of the UK

it is a primate city because it is more than double the population and significance of the next largest city

regional importance of london

Economic Driver - London is the UK's financial capital and a global powerhouse, with the highest concentration of companies and the most affluent market

Transport Hub: It operates as the central hub for national transport, including major rail, road (M25 motorway), and air networks (Heathrow/Gatwick).

Cultural & Educational Center - London contains the highest concentration of museums, theatres, and cultural venues in the UK. It hosts over 40 universities, including world-leading institutions.

global importance of london (why london is a world city)

traditional leader in banking and finance - Bank of England, HSBC, Canary Wharf, LLoyds

provision of entertainment - british museum, globe theatre, london stadium

major centres of political power - house of parliament

great ports and airports - heathrow, gatwick

distribution of UK population and wealth

distributed unevenly - major cities have the highest population densities

e.g UK pop in 2015 - 64 million, London was 8.6 million

london avg earnings - £34k, UK avg earnings - £22k

LE in london 1 year more than in UK

this is because:

majot cities are usually in flat, low-lying areas and relief affects population density because it is harder to develop on mountainous terrain

distribution of London population

Boroughs with highest population density are located in the centre of london, such as Islington and Tower hamlets, with population densities of more than 15000 per km²

an anomaly is the city of london, with a population density of 2000, even though it is in the centre of london

this could be because of the lack of housing in that area

boroughs with the lowest population density are located on the outskirts of london, such as Bromley - 2179, and Havering - 2257.

an anomaly is the city of london

how has londons population changed over time

as time increased, londons population has also increased

e.g. in 1801 - population was 1.1 million, in 1951, population was 8.3 million

decreased slightly from 1961-1981 due to counter-urbanisation

now population increases every day as more jobs available

migration

the movement of people across an official boundary, either internationally or nationally, with the intention of creating a permanent place of residence

impacts of national migration on london

Population Increase: Internal migration, alongside international migration, has driven population growth from a low in 1991 back to 8.8 million in 2021.

Demographic Shift: Internal migrants are often young, working-age people, which makes London's population younger than the national average.

Housing and Infrastructure Pressure: Increased population has created a high demand for housing, leading to a shortage, inflated property prices, and increased pressure on transport, schools, and health services.

impacts of international migration on london

Population Surge: International migration is the main driver of London's population growth, contributing to a younger and more working-age population.

Economic Impact: Migrants have filled skill shortages, contributing significantly to London's financial and knowledge-based economy.

Housing and Infrastructure Pressure: High demand has driven up housing costs, contributing to a housing shortage.

Public Services: Rapid population growth has created high demand for public services, particularly in healthcare and education.

social and economic opportunities in london

cultural mix

recreation and entertainment

employment

integrated transport systems

tourism

social and economic opportunities of London - Employment

London Docklands Regeneration Project in 1981

attracted private investment

allowed banks and high rise buildings to be built there

over 100k worked there

social and economic opportunities of London - Tourism

historic attractions like the Tower of London which is visited by over a third of tourists

creates jobs

social and economic opportunities of London - Recreation and entertainment

West End

Royal Albert Hall

O2

Sporting clubs

all create jobs

social and economic opportunities of London - Cultural mix

culturing mix due to migration e.g. Tooting

Brings in new food and ideas and skills

draws more people

social and economic opportunities of London - Transport (Crossrail)

crossrail goes through London, from Reading to Shenfield

Reduced journey times

increased rail passenger journeys by 10%

liverpool street to heathrow falls from 1 hour to 35 mins

environmental opportunity in london

urban greening

environmental opportunities of London - urban greening

around half of London is green space

home to 14k wildlife species and 8 million trees

Helps reduce climate change

Attracts biodiversity

reduces risk of flooding

improves air quality