psychology last test

Personality traits

Durable disposition to behave in a particular way in a variety of situations

Factor analysis

Using statistical techniques to identify clusters of related info

The Five-Factor Model ("Big 5" by Costa and McCrae)

1. Openness
2. Conscientiousness
3. Extraversion
4. Agreeableness
5. Neuroticism

Openness

A person high in this trait is relatively receptive to new ideas, creative, broad in interests. A person low in this trait is relatively conventional, practical, narrow in interests.

Conscientiousness

A person high in this trait is relatively responsible, organized, disciplined, achievement-oriented. A person low in this trait is relatively careless, disorganized, impulsive, lazy

Extraversion

A person high in this trait is relatively outgoing, fun-loving, assertive, talkative. A person low in this trait is relatively shy, serious, passive, quiet

Agreeableness

A person high in this trait is relatively warm, trusting, helpful, easy-going. A person low in this trait is relatively col, suspicious, uncooperative, argumentative

neuroticism

a person high in this trait is relatively emotionally unstable, insecure, anxious, moody. A person low in this trait is relatively emotionally stable, confident, calm, even-tempered

trait theories

describes personality; doesn't explain

allport's trait theory

central traits and secondary traits

central traits

approx. 7 main personality traits that are apparent to others and are consistent across diverse situations

secondary traits

unlimited number of traits that only show up in specific situations

cattell's trait theory (16 factor)

Source traits and surface traits

source traits

16 underlying personality traits that influence surface behavior

surface traits

the combination of source traits that make up our personality. These are behaviors that others see and are unlimited

Eysenck's biological trait theory

introversion vs. extraversion, neuroticism (emotionality; high vs low), and psychoticism (high vs low)

introversion vs. extraversion

introverted: quiet, reflective, reserved, etc.
extraverted: active, sociable, outgoing, etc.

neuroticism (emotionality) (high vs. low)

high in neuroticism: moody, anxious, restless, excitable
low in neuroticism: calms, even-tempered, etc.

evaluating trait theories

advantages: gives us terminology to describe behavior
disadvantages: doesn't explain behavior; doesn't create a unique description for everyone (like a horoscope) (Barnum effect)

Barnum effect

common psychological phenomenon whereby individuals give high accuracy ratings to descriptions of their personality that supposedly are tailored specifically to them but that are, in fact, vague and general enough to apply to a wide range of people

psychodynamic perspective

focus is on the unconscious mind

the structure of personality/mind (according to Freud's psychoanalytic theory)

1. Id: Instincts
2. Ego: Reality
3. Superego: Morality

Id

Instincts
- Primitive, instinctual component of our personality
- Fulfills our unconscious urges
- Operates on the pleasure principle (instant gratification)
- Includes: Eros (life instinct), Thanatos (Death instinct), and libido (sexual energy)

ego

reality
- operates on the reality principle (delay gratification until id's urges can be satisfied in a socially acceptable way)

superego

morality
- moral component of personality (values, conscience, right vs. wrong)
- learned from parents and society

defense mechanisms

unconscious reactions that protect a person from unpleasant emotions such as anxiety and guilt resulting from unconscious conflict

denial

refusal to recognize or acknowledge a threatening situation

repression

"pushing" threatening or conflicting events or situations out of conscious memory

rationalization

making up acceptable excuses for unacceptable behavior

projection

placing one's own unacceptable thoughts onto others, as if the thoughts belonged to them and not to oneself

reaction formation

forming an emotional reaction or attitude that is the opposite of one's threatening or unacceptable actual thoughts

displacement

expressing feelings that would be threatening if directed at the real target onto a less threatening substitute target

regression

falling back on childlike patterns as a way of coping with stressful situations

identification

trying to become like someone else to deal with one's anxiety

compensation (substitution)

trying to make up for areas in which a lack is perceived by becoming superior in some other area

sublimation

turning socially unacceptable urges into socially acceptable behavior

intellectualization

removing emotions from a situation; very logical thinking

psychosexual stages of development

developmental periods with a characteristic sexual focus that leave their mark on adult personality. Each stage corresponds with a specific area/source of pleasure

fixation

if a stage is not resolved successfully, a fixation may result. A result is a preoccupation with a particular source of pleasure

oral stage (0-1 year)

source of pleasure: mouth
focus: breastfeeding/weaning to determine if successful resolution
fixation: biting, chewing, sarcasm, smoking, etc.

anal stage (0-1 year)

source of pleasure: anus
focus: potty training to determine if successful resolution
anal retentive: (too early or too harsh) organized, clean, likes control
anal expulsive: (too late or too lax) messy, disorganized, impulsive

phallic stage (3-5 yrs)

source of pleasure: genitals
oedipus complex (boys) and electra complex (girls)
Fixations: mommy/daddy issues; trouble finding a mate

oedipus complex

little boys desire mommy and want to kill daddy

electra complex

little girls desire daddy and want to kill mommy (as a result, children use reaction formation and identification and cling to the same sex-parent. This is where the morals of the superego are learned)
Fixations: mommy/daddy issues; trouble finding a mate

latency stage (5 yrs-adolescence)

sexual impulses are dormant; nothing really happens. Most interaction occurs with same-sex children

genital stage (adolescence +)

sexual desire reappear; earlier fixations reappear; sexual energies are channeled toward peers of the other sex, rather than toward oneself

carl jung's analytical psychology

personal unconscious, collective unconscious, archetypes, and persona

personal unconscious

Houses material that is not within one's conscious awareness because it has been repressed or forgotten (our traditional view of unconscious)

collective unconscious

shared unconscious. A storehouse of latent memory traces inherited from people
s ancestral past; shared by entire human race

alfred adler's individual psychology

striving for superiority (overcoming feelings of inferiority)
- as a result we use compensation (efforts to overcome imagined or real inferiorities), which drives us to excel (strive for superiority) in other areas in our lives

inferiority

a feeling, often unconscious, that one is "lesser" to others in some way (physical, social, economical, intellectual, etc.)

Karen Horney

*Womb envy (men compensate in other ways)
While Freud argued personality differences in gender were biological, Horney argued that they were societal/cultural. She also focused on how different personalities personalities was a representation of different ways of attaining love/affection

evaluating psychodynamic perspectives: advantages

- unconscious forces do influence behavior
- internal conflict does exist
- early childhood experiences do influence adult behavior
- people use defense mechanisms

evaluating psychodynamic perspectives: disadvantages

- Lacks empirical evidence (all)
- Unrepresentative samples (Freud)
- Inaccurate reporting of data and method of conducting research had leading questions (Freud)
- Ignores consciousness (all)

cognitive-behavioral perspectives (on personality)

emphasizes cognitive processes, such as thinking and judging, in the development of personality. These cognitive processes contribute to learned behaviors that are central to one's personality

B.F. Skinner and Behaviorism

Personality (response tendencies) is developed through rewards and punishments

albert bandura's social cognitive theory

reciprocal determinism: thoughts/cognition, behaviors, and environmental factors all interact and influence each other
self-efficacy: one's beliefs about their ability to succeed (produce expected outcomes). Can be high or low. Can be general or situation specific

julian rotter's expectancy theory

locus of control - behavior is determined by the extent to which you believe your actions impact your environment
- people are described as having either an internal LOC or an external LOC

External LOC

yes, my behavior impacts my environment

internal LOC

no, my behavior does not impact my environment

evaluating cognitive-behavioral perspectives: advantages

- empirical evidence
- objective
- emphasizes the role of the environment and cognitive processes

evaluating cognitive-behavioral perspectives: disadvantages

- De-emphasizes freewill in behavior (too much emphasis on environment)
- Ignores unconscious and biological influences

humanistic perspectives (AKA phenomenological)

emphasizes the unique qualities in humans, especially their freedom to choose their destiny and potential for personal growth; be the best that they can be

carl rogers' person-centered theory

self-concept, self-discrepancy theory, conditions of worth

self-concept

"self-schema"
Collection of beliefs about one's own nature, human qualities, and typical behavior (people are subjective in their self-concept)

self-discrepancy theory

Actual self: who we are
Ideal self: who we wish we were
Ought self: who "they" say we should be
Is our actual self congruent with our ideal self? Ought self?
Negative emotions result from incongruencies and create a low self-concept

conditions of worth

the development of the self is determined by the extent to which parents make their love conditional. (positive self-concept is based on unconditional love)
Conditions of worth are created when the person is evaluated rather than the behavior

Abraham Maslow's theories: Hierarchy of needs (premise)

Some needs are more important than others. Basic needs must be satisfied first. Exceptions: Some people deny basic needs for self-transcendent reasons (hunger strike). People are motivated to fulfill certain needs that are arranged in a hierarchy; the lower needs on the hierarchy must be fulfilled before someone can be motivated by the next need on the hierarchy.

Abraham Maslow's Theories

1. Physiological
2. Safety
3. Belongingness
4. Esteem
5. Self-actualization
6. Self-transcendence
- Growth orientation vs deficiency orientation

Abraham maslow's theories: physiological

need to satisfy hunger and thirst

Abraham maslow's theories: safety

Need to feel that the world is organized and predictable; need to feel safe, secure, and stable

belongingness

Need to love and be loved, to belong and be accepted; need to avoid loneliness and separation

esteem

Need for self-esteem, achievement, competence, and independence; need for recognition and respect from others

self-actualization

The need to fulfill one's potential; be the best you can be

self-transcendence

Need to find meaning and identity beyond the self

Growth orientation vs deficiency orientation

Growth orientation - Focusing on what you have
Deficiency orientation - Focusing on what's missing

how does growth orientation relate to maslow's hierarchy

those with a growth orientation are healthier and more likely to reach self-actualization

evaluating humanistic perspectives: advantages

- Group therapies
- Child-rearing and relationships in general
- Free will to change

evaluating humanistic perspectives: disadvantages

- Poor testability and inadequate evidence
- Unrealistic view of human nature (too positive)
- Confined to Western cultures (very individualistic)
- Ignores biological, social, leaning, unconscious factors

individualism

putting personal goals ahead of group goals and defining one's identity in terms of personal attributes rather than group membership

collectivism

Putting group goals ahead of personal goals and defining one's identity in terms of the group one belongs to

MMPI

Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory
Most widely used; used in diagnosis (566 T/F questions; 10 clinical scales and 4 validity scales)

MBTI (Myers-Briggs Type Indicator)

Another objective test (gives 4 letters \= personality type)

Projective personality tests

Participants respond to vague, ambiguous stimuli in ways that may reveal the subjects unconscious needs, feelings, and the personality traits and can be analyzed in many different ways

thematic apperception test (TAT)

tell the story of a picture

rorschach inkblot test

Definition: shown a series of inkblots; respond to what you see
Strengths: not apparent to participants, insight into unconscious
Weaknesses: little evidence, how do you know if interpretation is accurate? (very subjective), etc...

motivation

The factors that influence the initiation, direction, intensity, and persistence of behavior

Sources of Motivation

biological factors, social factors, cognitive factors, emotional factors

biological factors

ex: food, water, sleep, sex, temperature, physiological factors (drugs or hormones) "internal"

social factors

for what?: approval of others, acceptance, fitting in/standing out
by whom: parents/siblings, friends, teammates, teachers, media, culture/race/religion, etc. "external"

cognitive factors

ex: beliefs, thoughts, expectations and views of yourself and of the world, curiosity, intellectual growth, etc. "internal"

emotional factors

ex: love, happiness, anger, fear, jealousy "internal"

primary drives/motives

biological need; directly related to survival (ex: food, water, oxygen, sleep, etc.)

secondary drives/motives

acquired drives that are culturally determined/learned (ex: obtaining $, intimacy, social approval, etc.)

Drive Theory
(AKA Drive Reduction Theory)

Premise: We are motivated to maintain homeostasis (balance) (this theory best explains biological needs)
Homeostasis: state of physiological equilibrium or stability
Drive: internal state of tension that motivates an organism to behave in a certain way in order to restore homeostasis

Incentive theory

Incentive \= an external goal
We are motivated to obtain desirable stimuli or avoid negative stimuli
Ex: $, promotion, food, approval, a good grade, etc.

Instinct (evolutionary) theory

Based on survival, natural selection; reproductive capacity; automatic, involuntary, and unlearned behaviors
Ex: birds fly south for the winter

Arousal theory

People are motivated to maintain their optimal level of arousal (which is different for everyone)
- If over-aroused (above your optimal level) \= motivated to reduce your level of arousal
- If under-aroused (lower than your optimal level) \= motivated to increase your arousal level

fixed mindset vs. growth mindset

Fixed mindset: Belief that your basic qualities, like your intelligence or talent, are simply fixed traits
Growth mindset: Belief that your most basic abilities can be developed through dedication and hard work - brains and talent are just the starting point (love of learning and resilience are essential)

need for achievement

need for personal accomplishment