AP Bio macromolecules and enzymes

Four main atoms in organic molecules

carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen

Hydrocarbons

organic molecules consisting of only carbon and hydrogen

T/F: Hydrocarbons are not present in most living organisms

false

Structural isomers

Differ in arrangement of atoms.

Types of Isomers

structural, cis-trans, enantiomers

cis-trans isomers

have the same covalent bonds but differ in spatial arrangements

Enantiomers

isomers that are mirror images of each other

Hydroxyl groups

OH, act as weak acids

carbonyl group symbol

C=O

carbonyl group

a chemical group consisting of a carbon atom linked by a double bond to an oxygen atom

carboxyl group symbol

-COOH

carboxyl group

consisting of a single carbon atom double-bonded to an oxygen atom and also bonded to a hydroxyl group.

Amino group symbol

-NH2

amino group

a chemical group consisting of a nitrogen atom bonded to two hydrogen atoms

sulfhydryl group symbol

-SH

sulfhydryl group

A chemical group consisting of a sulfur atom bonded to a hydrogen atom.

phosphate group symbol

-OPO3^2-

phosphate group

A functional group consisting of a phosphorus atom covalently bonded to four oxygen atoms

Methyl group symbol

-CH3

methyl group

A chemical group consisting of a carbon atom bonded to three hydrogen atoms.

Functional groups

a specific configuration of atoms commonly attached to the carbon skeletons of organic molecules and involved in chemical reactions

Polymer

A long molecule consisting of many similar or identical monomers linked together.

Monomer

the subunit that serves as the building block of a polymer

Dehydration synthesis

A chemical reaction in which two molecules covalently bond to each other with the removal of a water molecule.

Hydrolysis

Breaking down complex molecules by the chemical addition of water

Carbohydrates

a sugar or one of its dimers or polymers

Monosaccharide

single sugar molecule

Disaccharide

double sugar

Polysaccharide

polymers composed of many sugar building blocks joined together by dehydration synthesis

forumla of glucose

C6H12O6

Hexose

6 carbon sugar

Trioses

3 carbon sugars

Pentose

5 carbon sugar

In aqueous solutions most five/six-carbon sugars form:

rings

Abbreviated ring structure

Each unlabeled corner represents a carbon. The ring's thicker edge indicates that you are looking at the ring edge-on; the components attached to the ring lie above or below the plane of the ring

Function of monosaccharides

Basic energy for cells

glycosidic linkage

A covalent bond formed between two monosaccharides by a dehydration reaction.

example of disaccharide

sucrose, lactose, maltose

Storage polysaccharide

stored glucose used overtime as energy by the organism

starch

A storage polysaccharide in plants consisting entirely of glucose.

Glycogen

an extensively branched glucose storage polysaccharide found in the liver and muscle of animals

what does the breakdown of glycogen produce

glucose

Cellulose

a structural polysaccharide of plant cell walls, consisting of glucose monomers joined by Beta glycosidic linkages

Chitin

a structural polysaccharide, consisting of amino sugar monomers, found in many fungal cell walls and in the exoskeleton of all arthropods

Does a lipid have a monomer?

no

Lipids

any group of large biological molecules, including, fats, phospholipids, and steroids. Mix poorly, if at all, with wate

Are lipids hydrophobic or hydrophilic?

hydrophobic

Fats

a lipid consisting of three fatty acids linked to one glycerol molecules

Fatty acid

a carboxylic acid with a long carbon chain. Vary in length and in the number and location of double bonds. Three fatty acids linked to a glycerol molecule form a fat molecule also known as a triglyceride

Saturated fatty acid

A fatty acid in which all carbons in the hydrocarbon tail are connected by single bonds, thus maximizing the number of hydrogen atoms that can attach to the carbon skeleton.

Are saturated fats solid or liquid at room temperature?

solid

unsaturated fats

a fatty acid that has one or more double bonds between carbons in the hydrocarbon tail. Such bonding reduces that number of hydrogen atoms attached to the carbon skeleton

Where are saturated fats found?

animal products

Where are unsaturated fats found?

vegetable oils, nuts, seeds

Are unsaturated fats solid or liquid at room temperature?

liquid

function of fats

provide energy and insulation

dehydration synthesis

A chemical reaction in which two molecules covalently bond to each other with the removal of a water molecule.

Steriods

a type of lipid characterized by a carbon skeleton consisting of four fused rings with various chemical groups attached

Cholesterol

a steroid that forms an essential component of animal cell membranes and acts as a precursor molecule for the synthesis of other biologically important steroids

Maltose

glucose and glucose

structural polysaccharide

cellulose

storage polysaccharides

starch and glycogen

Fructose

a hexose sugar found especially in honey and fruit.

primary structure

sequence of amino acids

secondary structure

the regular local patterns of coils or folds of a polypeptide chain.

tetiary structure

a folding of the polypeptide structure into a unique three-dimensional conformation

quaternary structure

the shape resulting from the association of two or more polypeptide subunits.

Denature

Characteristic of proteins; a change in shape that stops the protein from functioning.

Parts of a nucleotide

5 carbon sugar, phosphate group, nitrogenous base

exergonic reaction

A spontaneous chemical reaction in which there is a net release of free energy.

endergonic reaction

A non-spontaneous chemical reaction in which free energy is absorbed from the surroundings.

chemical work

the making and breaking of chemical bonds

transport work

the pumping of substances across membranes against the direction of spontaneous movement

mechanical energy

contraction of muscle cells

coupled reactions

pairs of chemical reactions in which some of the energy released from the breakdown of one compound is used to create a bond in the formation of another compound

competitive inhibition

competes with substrate for active site

Noncompeitive inhibition

binds to another part of enzyme causing it to change shape

feedback inhibition

A metabolic pathway is switched off by the inhibitory binding of its end product to an enzyme that acts early in the pathway.

enzymatic proteins

selective acceleration of chemical reactions

storage proteins

storage of amino acids

defensive proteins

antibodies of the immune system

transport proteins

transport of substances

hormonal proteins

coordination of an organism's activities

function of nucleic acids

store and transmit genetic information

Substrate

reactant of an enzyme-catalyzed reaction

active site

The part of an enzyme or antibody where the chemical reaction occurs.

activation energy

Energy needed to get a reaction started

cellular respiration

Process that releases energy by breaking down glucose and other food molecules in the presence of oxygen

ATP

main energy source that cells use for most of their work

starch structure

alpha glucose monomer

Cellulose structure

beta glucose monomers

Are lipids polar or non-polar?

non-polar

major groups of lipids

triglycerides, phospholipids, steroids

how to identify a steroid

4 carbon rings

Function of fats

energy and insulation

function of proteins

speeds up reactions, defense, storage, transport, cell communication, movement, structure

properties of amino acids

central carbon, -NH2, -COOH

N-terminus

the end of a polypeptide or protein that has a free amino group

C-terminus

the end of a polypeptide or protein that has a free carboxyl group

Nitrogen bases

Adenine, Thymine, Guanine, Cytosine