Unit 6 AP Psychology

Developmental Psychology

Nature vs. Nurture

name for a controversy in which it is debated whether genetics or environment is responsible for driving behavior

continuity-discontinuity controversy

deals with the issue of whether development is a gradual, continuous process or a sequence of separate stages

Stability vs. Change

deals with the issue of whether or not personality traits present during infancy endure throughout the lifespan

cross-sectional study

a study in which people of different ages are compared/tested with one another at the same time

longitudinal study

a study that observes/tests the same participants on many occasions over a long period of time

cohort-sequential study

A research method in which a cross section of the population is chosen and then each cohort is followed for a short period of time. It combines cross sectional and longitudinal to correct for cohort effects

cohort effect

observed group differences based on the era when people were born and grew up, exposing them to particular experiences that may affect the results of cross-sectional studies

critical period

a a time interval shortly after birth during which specific stimuli have a major effect on development that the stimuli do not produce at other times

prenatal development

period of development that begins with fertilization, or conception, and ends with birth

Zygote

fertilized ovum(egg) with the genetic instructions for a new individual, normally contained in 46 chromosomes

embryo

the developmental prenatal stage (from about 2 weeks after fertilization through the second month) when most organ development begins.

fetus

the developing human organism from 9 weeks after conception to birth when organ systems begin to interact; sex organs and sense organs become refined.

Teratogen

harmful substances (drugs or viruses) during the prenatal period that can cause birth defects

fetal alcohol syndrome (FAS)

a cluster of abnormalities that occurs in babies of mothers who drink alcoholic beverages during pregnancy, which includes low intelligence, small head with flat face, misshapen eyes, flat nose, and thin upper lip, as well as some degree of intellectual impairment.

neonate

newborn baby from birth to 1 month old; shows reflexive behavior

Habituation

decreasing responsiveness with repeated presentation of same stimulation. As infants gain familiarity with repeated exposure to a visual stimulus, their interest wanes and they look away sooner.

Reflex

A simple, automatic, inborn response to a sensory stimulus, such as the knee-jerk response.

rooting reflex

a newborn baby's tendency, to move its head, when touched on the cheek, to turn toward the touch or open the mouth, and search for the nipple

Sucking

the automatic response of drawing in anything at the mouth

swallowing

automatic contraction of throat muscles that enables food to pass into the esophagus without choking

grasping reflex

infant closes his or her fingers around an object placed in his or her hand

startle reflex (moro)

when exposed to a loud noise or sudden drop, the neonate automatically arches his or her back, flings his or her limbs out, and quickly retracts them.

Puberty

the early adolescent period, marked by accelerated growth and onset of the ability to reproduce.

primary sex characteristics

the reproductive organs (Ovaries, Uterus, Testes) and external genitalia (vulva and penis) that make sexual reproduction possible

secondary sex characteristics

non-reproductive sexual characteristics, such as female breasts and hips, male voice quality, adam's apple and body/facial hair.

menarche

first menstrual period

Menopause

the time of natural cessation of menstruation and her ability to reproduce declines; also refers to a decrease in production of female sex hormones; occurs at about age 50.

Schema

framework of basic ideas about people, objects and events based on past experience in long-term memory

Assimilation

the process by which we incorporate new information into an existing cognitive structures or schema

accommodation

the process by which we modify our schemas to fit new information

sensorimotor stage

in Piaget's theory, the stage (from birth to about 2 years of age) during which infants experience the world mostly in terms of their sensory and motor patterns; progresses to object permanence and symbolic thinking

object permanence

the awareness that an object continues to exist even when not perceived/in sight

Egocentrism

seeing the world from one's own perspective; the inability to see reality from the perspective of another person, characteristic of the preoperational child.

Animism

Beliefs by a preoperational child that objects, such as plants and earthquakes, have a conscious life(living things).

Artificialism

the belief of the preoperational child that all objects are made by people

concrete operational stage

Piaget's third stage of cognitive development, lasting from about 7 to 12 years of age, during which child develops simple logic and master conservation concepts

conservation concept

changes in the form of an object do not alter physical properties of mass, volume, and number

formal operational stage

Piaget's fourth and final stage of cognitive development (beginning at about age 12), during which the child can think logically about abstract concepts and engages in hypothetical thinking

Internalization

the process of absorbing information from a specified social environmental context, thereby conditioning the individual to conform to environment's expectations

zone of proximal development

the range between the level at which a child can solve a problem working alone along with difficulty, and the level at which a child can solve a problem with assistance of adults or more-skilled children.

Alzheimer's disease

a fatal degenerative disease in which brain neurons progressively die, causing loss of memory, reasoning, emotion, control of bodily functions, then death

moral development

growth in the ability to tell right from wrong, control impulses, and act ethically

preconventional level

when at the preoperational stage of cognitive development, individuals do the right thing to:

stage 1- avoid punishment, obey authority

stage 2- further self-interests, gain reward

conventional level

when at the concrete operational stage of cognitive development or formal operational stage for most people:

stage 3- conform, live up to expectations of others

stage 4- maintain law and order, do your duty

postconventional level

Reached by only some people in the formal operational stage

Stage 5—social contract, to promote the society's welfare

Stage 6—to promote justice

Social Development

At the influences of others on the development of a person

Culture

behaviors, ideas, attitudes, values, and traditions transmitted from one generation to the next within a group of people who share a common language and environment

Bonding

creation of close emotional relationship between mother (or parents) and baby shortly after birth

attachment

a close emotional bond or relationship between the infant and the caregiver

secure attachment

after absence the baby is happy to see the mother, receptive to her contact. Securely attached babies tend to become socially competent children.

insecure attachment

after absence the baby is angry and rejecting of mother, avoids her, ignores her, or behaves inconsistently.

temperament

an infant's natural disposition to show a particular mood at a particular intensity for a specific period

spermarche

boys' first ejaculation

theory of mind

people's ideas about their own and others' mental states—about their feelings, perceptions, and thoughts, and the behaviors these might predict.

scaffold

a framework that offers children temporary support as they develop higher levels of thinking

Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD)

a disorder that appears in childhood and is marked by significant deficiencies in communication and social interaction, and by rigidly fixated interests and repetitive behaviors

stranger anxiety

the fear of strangers that infants commonly display, beginning by about 8 months of age

imprinting

the process by which certain animals form strong attachments during an early-life critical period

strange situation

a procedure for studying child-caregiver attachment; a child is placed in an unfamiliar environment while their caregiver leaves and then returns, and the child's reactions are observed

Basic Trust

according to Erik Erikson, a sense that the world is predictable and trustworthy; said to be formed during infancy by appropriate experiences with responsive caregivers

self-concept

all our thoughts and feelings about ourselves, in answer to the question, "Who am I?"

self-awareness

consciousness of oneself as a person

social referencing

observing the behavior of others in social situations to obtain information or guidance

sex

the biologically influenced characteristics by which people define male and female

aggression

any physical or verbal behavior intended to harm someone physically or emotionally

intimacy

in Erikson's theory, the ability to form close, loving relationships; a primary developmental task in late adolescence and young adulthood

relational aggression

an act of aggression (physical or verbal) intended to harm a person's relationship or social standing

role

a set of expectations (norms) about a social position, defining how those in the position ought to behave

identity

our sense of self; according to Erikson, the adolescent's task is to solidify a sense of self by testing and integrating various roles

social identity

the "we" aspect of our self-concept; the part of our answer to "Who am I?" that comes from our group memberships

emerging adulthood

a period from about age 18 to the mid-twenties, when many in Western cultures are no longer adolescents but have not yet achieved full independence as adults

X chromosome

The sex chromosome found in both men and women. Females have two X chromosomes; males have one. An X chromosome from each parent produces a female child.

Y chromosome

the sex chromosome found only in males. When paired with an X chromosome from the mother, it produces a male child.

Testosterone

the most important of the male sex hormones. Both males and females have it, but the additional testosterone in males stimulates the growth of the male sex organs in the fetus and the development of the male sex characteristics during puberty

intersex

a condition present at birth due to unusual combinations of male and female chromosomes, hormones, and anatomy; possessing biological sexual characteristics of both sexes

AIDS (acquired immune deficiency syndrome)

a life-threatening, sexually transmitted infection caused by the human immunodeficiency virus (HIV). AIDS depletes the immune system, leaving the person vulnerable to infections.

sexual orientation

our enduring sexual attraction, usually toward members of our own sex (homosexual orientation) or the other sex (heterosexual orientation); variations include attraction toward both sexes (bisexual orientation)

neurocognitive disorders

acquired (not lifelong) disorders marked by cognitive deficits; often related to Alzheimer's disease, brain injury or disease, or substance abuse. In older adults neurocognitive disorders were formerly called dementia

social clock

the culturally preferred timing of social events such as marriage, parenthood, and retirement

social learning theory

the theory that we learn social behavior by observing and imitating and by being rewarded or punished

adolescence

the transition period from childhood to adulthood, extending from puberty to independence

gender roles

sets of expectations that prescribe how females or males should think, act, and feel

gender identity

A person's sense of being male or female

gender

the socially influenced characteristics by which people define boy, girl, man, and woman.

gender stability

child's understanding that sex identity is stable over time

gender consistency

child's understanding that his/her sex won't change even if he/she acts like the opposite sex

gender schema

mental set of what society considers appropriate behavior for each of the sexes

gender role stereotypes

broad categories that reflect our impressions and beliefs about males and females

Androgyny

displaying both traditional masculine and feminine psychological characteristics

gender typing

the acquisition of a traditional masculine or feminine role

Maturation

biological growth processes that enable orderly changes in behavior, relatively uninfluenced by experience

cognition

all the mental activities associated with thinking, knowing, remembering, and communicating

authoritarian parenting

sets up absolute and restrictive rules accompanied by punishment for disobedience

authoritative parenting

focuses on flexible rules for which reasons are generally given. Parents are warm and nurture independence within guidelines.

permissive parenting

sets no firm guidelines for behavior and tends to give in to demands of the child

uninvolved parenting

makes few demands, shows low responsiveness and little communication

Trust vs. Mistrust

0-1 years. Erikson's first stage during the first year of life, infants learn to trust (basic trust) when they are cared for in a consistent warm manner

autonomy versus shame and doubt

second stage of personality development in which the toddler strives for physical independence and achieve a balance between self-determination and control by others

initiative versus guilt

3-6 years. Erikson's third psychosocial crisis, in which children undertake new skills and activities and feel guilty when they do not succeed at them

industry versus inferiority

6-12 years. The fourth of Erikson's eight psychosocial crises, during which children attempt to master many skills, developing a sense of themselves as either industrious or inferior, competent or incompetent.