bio final

what is an ecosystem

community of living organism

abiotic of ecosystem

non living things such as water and soil

biotic systems of ecosystem

living things such as animals and plant

effect of competion on population

limiting resources such as food and shelter

competitive exclusion

two species competing for the same limiting

competitive exclusion on an organism

being out competitive by another organism

component of a food chain

producers, consumers, and decomposers.

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producer in a food chain

A producer in a food chain is an organism, usually a plant, that produces its own food through photosynthesis and serves as the base of the food chain.

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Consumers in a food chain

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organisms that obtain their energy by consuming other organisms. They are also known as heterotrophs.

decomposers in a food chain

Decomposers are organisms that break down dead organic matter into simpler substances. In a food chain, they play an important role in recycling nutrients back into the ecosystem.

energy tranfers

Energy transfers refer to the movement of energy from one object or system to another. This can occur through various processes such as conduction, convection, and radiation

processes that move carbon and nitrogen between the biotic and abiotic reservoirs.

The processes that move carbon and nitrogen between the biotic and abiotic reservoirs are known as biogeochemical cycles. These cycles include processes such as photosynthesis, respiration, decomposition, and nitrogen fixation.

why both microbes and detritivores are important to the nutrient cycles.

Microbes and detritivores are important to the nutrient cycles because they both play a crucial role in breaking down organic matter and returning nutrients to the soil. Microbes, such as bacteria and fungi, break down dead plant and animal material into simpler compounds, making them available for uptake by plants. Detritivores, such as earthworms and insects, consume dead organic matter and break it down into smaller particles, which can then be further decomposed by microbes. This process of decomposition and nutrient recycling is essential for maintaining healthy ecosystems.

what factors lead to population growth.

Population growth is influenced by several factors, including increased birth rates, decreased death rates, immigration, and improved healthcare. Additionally, economic development and technological advancements can also contribute to population growth by improving living conditions and increasing access to resources. However, population growth can also have negative impacts on the environment and society, such as resource depletion and overcrowding.

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1.  what factors lead to population decline.

There are several factors that can lead to population decline, including low birth rates, high death rates, emigration, and natural disasters. Other factors may include disease, war, famine, and environmental degradation.

relationship between birth rate and death rate

The relationship between birth rate and death rate is known as the population growth rate. If the birth rate is higher than the death rate, the population will increase. If the death rate is higher than the birth rate, the population will decrease. If the birth rate and death rate are equal, the population will remain stable.

density-dependent limiting factors and recognize the effect they have on a population.

Density-dependent limiting factors are factors that affect a population based on its size and density. As the population grows, these factors become more pronounced and can limit further growth. Examples include competition for resources, predation, disease, and parasitism. These factors can lead to a decrease in population size or a decrease in population growth rate.

parts of a virus

A virus typically consists of a nucleic acid genome (either DNA or RNA) surrounded by a protein coat called a capsid. Some viruses also have an outer envelope made of lipids. The capsid and envelope together make up the viral particle or virion. Some viruses also have additional structures such as spikes or tails.

why a virus is not defined as a living thing.

A virus is not defined as a living thing because it cannot reproduce or carry out metabolic processes on its own. It needs a host cell to replicate and survive. Additionally, viruses do not have a cellular structure or the ability to maintain homeostasis, which are characteristics of living organisms.

carbohydrates

Carbohydrates can be classified as simple or complex, depending on their chemical structure. Simple carbohydrates, such as sugar, are quickly digested and provide a quick source of energy. Complex carbohydrates, such as starch, take longer to digest and provide a sustained source of energy.

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proteins

Proteins are large biomolecules made up of amino acids. They play a crucial role in many biological processes, including cell signaling, immune response, and muscle contraction. Proteins are also important structural components of cells and tissues. The sequence of amino acids in a protein determines its unique three-dimensional structure and function. Some common types of proteins include enzymes, antibodies, and hormones.

lipids

Lipids are a group of organic compounds that are insoluble in water but soluble in organic solvents. They include fats, oils, waxes, phospholipids, and steroids. Lipids are important for energy storage, insulation, and cell membrane structure.

nucleic acid

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biomolecules that store and genetic information

equation for photosynthesis

6CO2+6H2O+LIGHT ENERGY= C6H1206+6O2

cuticle of the leaf

the outermost layer of plants, which covers leaves, fruits, flowers, and non-woody stems of higher plants

stoma

— a circular pore with a hole in the middle for gas to enter or leave the plant

mesophyll

 the internal ground tissue located between the two epidermal cell layers of the leaf

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1. chloroplast

perform photosynthesis during the daylight hours.

step of light dependent

absorption of light energy, splitting of water molecules, release of oxygen, formation of energy carrying molecules – ATP and NADPH

steps of lights independent

\: fixation, reduction, and regeneration.

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1. n how the light dependent reactions and the light independent reactions cannot occur without each other.

 use stored chemical energy from the light-dependent reactions to “fix” CO2 and create a product that can be converted into glucose.

What are carbohydrates used for in living organisms?

Carbs are broken down by the body into glucose – a type of sugar. Glucose is used as fuel by your body's cells, tissues, and organs.

What are monosaccharides

, also called simple sugars, are the simplest forms of sugar and the most basic units from which all carbohydrates are built.

how can manonosaccharide be identify

 by indicating the number of carbons in the saccharide and its function. 

 What are disaccharides

1. any of a class of __sugars__ whose molecules contain two __monosaccharide__ __residues__.

how are disaccharides formed

 formed when two monosaccharides are joined by glycosidic linkage. Like monosaccharides,

What are polysaccharides

1. a carbohydrate (e.g. __starch__, __cellulose__, or __glycogen__) whose molecules consist of a number of sugar molecules bonded together.

What are polysaccharides used for

 a structural organization in animals and plants. Other functions of polysaccharides include: They store energy in organisms. Due to the presence of multiple hydrogen bonds, the water cannot invade the molecules making them hydrophobic

what are polysaccharides used for

The polysaccharides serve as a structural organization in animals and plants. Other functions of polysaccharides include: They store energy in organisms. Due to the presence of multiple hydrogen bonds, the water cannot invade the molecules making them hydrophobic

types of polysaccharides

starch, glycogen, cellulose, chitin, hylauronic acide, peptidoglycan, agarose

starch

A polysaccharide composed of glucose units that is found in plants and is used as a source of energy.

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glycogen

A polysaccharide composed of glucose units that is found in animals and is used as a source of energy.

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cellulose

A polysaccharide composed of glucose units that is found in the cell walls of plants and provides structural support.

chitin

A polysaccharide composed of N-acetylglucosamine units that is found in the exoskeletons of arthropods and the cell walls of fungi.

hyaluronic acid

A polysaccharide composed of repeating disaccharide units that is found in connective tissue and synovial fluid and helps to lubricate joints.

peptidoglycan

A polysaccharide composed of alternating N-acetylglucosamine and N-acetylmuramic acid units that is found in the cell walls of bacteria and provides structural support.

agarose

\- A polysaccharide composed of repeating disaccharide units that is found in the cell walls of certain seaweeds and is used in gel electrophoresis.

the structure and function of the parts of the cell membrane

The cell membrane, also known as the plasma membrane, is a thin, flexible layer that surrounds the cell and separates the inside of the cell from the outside environment. It is composed of a lipid bilayer, which consists of two layers of phospholipids.

Phospholipids

The main component of the cell membrane, phospholipids are molecules that have a hydrophilic (water-loving) head and a hydrophobic (water-fearing) tail. These molecules form the lipid bilayer of the cell membrane.

Cholesterol

is a lipid molecule that is found in the cell membrane. It helps to stabilize the membrane and prevent it from becoming too fluid or too rigid.

Proteins

The cell membrane contains several different types of proteins, including integral proteins, peripheral proteins, and glycoproteins. These proteins have a variety of functions, such as transporting molecules across the membrane, acting as enzymes, and facilitating cell-to-cell communication.

 how lipids are modified to produce a phospholipid.

to produce phospholipids through a process called phosphorylation. During phosphorylation, a phosphate group is added to a lipid molecule, which changes its chemical properties and makes it more polar. This allows the lipid to interact more readily with water molecules, which is important for the formation of the lipid bilayer in the cell membrane.

reason cell divide

including growth, repair, and reproduction. During growth and development, cells divide to increase the number of cells in an organism, allowing it to become larger and more complex

interphase of a cell cycle

is the longest phase of the cell cycle, during which the cell grows, replicates its DNA, and prepares for cell division. Interphase is divided into three sub-phases: G1, S, and G2.

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 the structure of a nucleotide.

a nucleotide is composed of a nitrogenous base, a five-carbon sugar, and a phosphate group. The specific combination of these three components determines the identity of the nucleotide and its role in nucleic acid structure and function.

Compare DNA and RNA in both structure and function.

DNA and RNA are similar in that they are both nucleic acids that contain bases and phosphate groups. However, they differ in their sugar, base, and structural components, as well as their functions and stability.

dna

DNA is a double-stranded, helical molecule that carries genetic information and is located in the nucleus of eukaryotic cells. The sequence of bases in DNA determines an organism's traits and can be altered by mutations.

rna

RNA is a single-stranded nucleic acid that plays a crucial role in the transfer of genetic information from DNA to protein synthesis. There are three main types of RNA: mRNA, tRNA, and rRNA. RNA is synthesized from DNA during transcription and undergoes processing before it can be used in protein synthesis.

the process of DNA replication

DNA replication is the process by which a cell makes an identical copy of its DNA. DNA replication occurs in three main stages: initiation, elongation, and termination. During elongation, new DNA strands are synthesized by DNA polymerase, and RNA primers are required to initiate replication. During termination, RNA primers are removed, and the gaps are filled in by DNA polymerase. The Okazaki fragments are joined together by DNA ligase, creating a continuous strand of DNA.

M phase and list the two subdivisions of this part of the cell cycle

the M phase is the part of the cell cycle during which the cell divides into two daughter cells. The M phase is divided into two main subdivisions: mitosis and cytokinesis. During mitosis, the nucleus of the cell divides into two identical nuclei, and mitosis is divided into four stages: prophase, metaphase, anaphase, and telophase. During cytokinesis, the cytoplasm of the cell divides, resulting in two daughter cells.

List the phases of mitosis

* The four phases of mitosis are prophase, metaphase, anaphase, and telophase. During prophase, the chromatin condenses into visible chromosomes, and the nuclear envelope breaks down. During metaphase, the chromosomes line up at the equator of the cell. During anaphase, the sister chromatids separate and are pulled to opposite poles of the cell. During telophase, the chromosomes arrive at the poles of the cell and the nuclear envelope reforms around them.

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1. Define the term cancer.

is a group of diseases characterized by the uncontrolled growth and spread of abnormal cells.

Compare tumor suppressor proteins and growth factors.

, tumor suppressor proteins and growth factors are two types of proteins involved in the regulation of cell growth and division. Tumor suppressor proteins help prevent the development of cancer by inhibiting cell division or promoting cell death, while growth factors stimulate cell growth and division.

Define the term stem cell

* Stem cells are a type of undifferentiated cell that has the ability to develop into many different types of specialized cells in the body.

stem cell in human body

* Stem cells are found in many tissues and organs of the human body. In adults, stem cells are present in tissues such as bone marrow, brain, blood vessels, skin, liver, and muscle. These adult stem cells are responsible for maintaining and repairing the tissues and organs in which they reside. For example, stem cells in the bone marrow produce new blood cells, while stem cells in the skin help regenerate skin cells after injury. I

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1. Compare the terms pluripotent and differentiated.

pluripotent cells have the potential to differentiate into any cell type in the body, while differentiated cells have already developed into a specific cell type with a specific function.

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how dominant and recessive alleles differ.

dominant alleles are expressed in the phenotype of an organism regardless of whether the other allele is dominant or recessive, while recessive alleles are only expressed in the phenotype of an organism if both alleles are recessive.

Compare the terms genotype and phenotype.

genotype refers to an organism's genetic makeup, while phenotype refers to the physical characteristics that result from that genetic makeup.

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1. Compare the terms homozygous and heterozygous.

ry, homozygous refers to an organism that has two identical alleles for a particular gene, while heterozygous refers to an organism that has two different alleles for the same gene.

karyotype

is a visual representation of an organism's chromosomes arranged according to size, shape, and other physical characteristics.

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1.  what happens in the process of meiosis by describing what happens in each step of division I and division II.

n summary, meiosis involves two rounds of cell division, each of which is divided into several stages. During meiosis I, homologous chromosomes pair up and exchange genetic material, while during meiosis II, sister chromatids are separated. The end result is four haploid daughter cells, each with half the number of chromosomes as the parent cell.

Prophase II:

Chromosomes condense again and the nuclear envelope breaks down.

Metaphase II:

Chromosomes line up along the equator of the cell.

Anaphase II

Sister chromatids are separated and pulled to opposite poles of the cell.

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Telophase II:

Chromosomes arrive at opposite poles of the cell and the cell divides again, resulting in four haploid daughter cells.

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Prophase I

Homologous chromosomes pair up and exchange genetic material in a process called crossing over. This creates new combinations of genes and increases genetic diversity.

Metaphase I

Homologous chromosome pairs align along the equator of the cell.

Anaphase I

Homologous chromosomes are separated and pulled to opposite poles of the cell.

Telophase I

Chromosomes arrive at opposite poles of the cell and the cell begins to divide.

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1. Compare the terms homologous chromosomes and sister chromatids.

In summary, homologous chromosomes are chromosome pairs that are similar in size, shape, and genetic content, while sister chromatids are identical copies of a single chromosome that are produced during DNA replication. Homologous chromosomes undergo crossing over during meiosis, while sister chromatids are separated during cell division.

Compare the terms diploid and haploid.

In summary, diploid cells have two sets of chromosomes, while haploid cells have only one set of chromosomes. Diploid cells are found in most cells of the body and undergo mitosis, while haploid cells are found in sperm and egg cells and are produced by meiosis.

Compare the processes of mitosis and meiosis.

In summary, mitosis is the process of cell division that produces two identical daughter cells with the same number of chromosomes as the parent cell, while meiosis is the process of cell division that produces four haploid daughter cells with half the number of chromosomes as the parent cell. Mitosis is involved in growth, repair, and asexual reproduction, while meiosis is involved in sexual reproduction. Mitosis consists of one round of cell division, while meiosis consists of two rounds of cell division.

Correctly setup and interpret the results of a dihybrid

In summary, to set up and interpret the results of a dihybrid cross, you need to know the genotypes of the parents for each trait, the possible gametes that can be produced by each parent, and the dominant and recessive traits for each trait. The resulting offspring would have a genotypic ratio of 1:2:1:2:4:2:1:2:1 (CCSS:CcSS:CCss:Ccss:CcSs:ccSS:Ccss:ccSs:ccss) and a phenotypic ratio of 9:3:3:1 (yellow round:yellow wrinkled:green round:green wrinkled).

e patterns for codominance,

codominance is a type of inheritance where both alleles in a heterozygous individual are fully expressed, resulting in a phenotype that shows both traits. Examples of codominance include blood types, coat color in cattle, and feather color in chickens.

patterns of independence dominants

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In summary, incomplete dominance is a type of inheritance where the phenotype of the heterozygous individual is a blend of the two homozygous phenotypes. Examples of incomplete dominance include flower color in snapdragons, feather color in birds, and hair texture in humans.

sex-linked

sex-linked inheritance refers to the inheritance of genes located on the sex chromosomes, X and Y. Examples of sex-linked traits include color blindness and hemophilia. Males are more likely to express sex-linked traits because they only have one X chromosome, while females are less likely to express these traits but can be carriers.

Define the term mutation

A mutation is a change in the DNA sequence that makes up a gene. Mutations can be caused by a variety of factors, including errors during DNA replication, exposure to radiation or chemicals, or spontaneous genetic change

where protein synthesis takes place

transcription and translation. Transcription occurs in the nucleus of eukaryotic cells and involves the synthesis of messenger RNA (mRNA) from DNA.

process of protein synthesis.

is tightly regulated and involves many different enzymes and other proteins. Mutations in the DNA sequence can cause changes in the amino acid sequence of the protein, which can have a variety of effects on the function of the protein