Human Behavior in Organizations

Organization Structure

The overall set of elements used to configure an organization.

Job Specialization

The degree to which the tasks of an organization are broken down and divided into smaller parts.

Benefits and Limitations of Specialization

The advantages and disadvantages of job specialization, such as increased proficiency, decreased transfer time, and the need for specialized equipment.

Alternatives to Specialization

Job Rotation, Job Enlargement, Job Enrichment, and the Job Characteristics Approach as alternatives to job specialization.

Work Teams

A group responsible for designing and performing an interrelated set of tasks as an alternative to job specialization.

Departmentalization

The grouping of jobs according to a logical arrangement, such as Functional Departmentalization, Product Departmentalization, Customer Departmentalization, and Location Departmentalization.

Establishing Reporting Relationships

The establishment of reporting relationships to clarify the chain of command and the span of management.

Chain of Command

The hierarchical structure of authority within an organization.

Span of Management

The number of people who report to each manager.

Tall Versus Flat Organizations

The difference between organizations with more layers (tall) and fewer layers (flat) in their structure.1. Managers:Individuals responsible for overseeing and directing the activities of a group or organization.

Flat Organization

An organizational structure with fewer layers of management, leading to higher levels of employee morale and productivity.

Span of Management

The number of subordinates reporting to a manager, which can vary in a flat organization.

Administrative Responsibility

The duties and tasks related to managing and overseeing the operations of a department or organization.

Supervisory Responsibility

The duties and tasks related to overseeing and directing the work of subordinates.

Leading the Way

A feature highlighting a CEO's efforts to transition a firm towards a flatter organization.

Distributing Authority

The process of delegating power and responsibility within an organization.

Delegation

The assignment of tasks and responsibilities from a manager to one or more subordinates.

Accountability

The obligation of a subordinate to carry out the tasks assigned by a manager.

Decentralization

The systematic delegation of power and authority to middle- and lower-level managers.

Centralization

The retention of power and authority at higher levels of an organization.

Coordination

The process of linking the activities of different departments within an organization.

Interdependence

The reliance of departments and work groups on each other for information and resources.

Pooled Interdependence

The lowest level of interdependence, where the output of units is pooled at the organizational level.

Sequential Interdependence

The flow of output from one unit to another in a sequential fashion.

Reciprocal Interdependence

The two-way flow of activities between units.

Structural Coordination Techniques

Various methods used to achieve coordination within an organization.

Managerial Hierarchy

A structure that establishes levels of authority and responsibility within an organization.1. Rules and procedures:Established guidelines and protocols that govern the behavior and actions within an organization.

Liaison roles

Individuals or positions responsible for facilitating communication and coordination between different departments or groups within an organization.

Task forces

Temporary groups or teams formed to address specific issues or projects within an organization.

Integrating departments

The process of bringing together different departments or units within an organization to work collaboratively towards a common goal.

Electronic Coordination

The use of information technology, such as email, to facilitate communication and coordination within an organization.

Bureaucracy

A model of organization design based on a legitimate and formal system of authority.

Division of labor

The allocation of specific tasks and responsibilities to different individuals or positions within an organization.

Consistent set of rules

Established guidelines and regulations that ensure uniformity in task performance within an organization.

Hierarchy of positions

A chain of command that establishes a clear reporting structure from the top to the bottom of an organization.

Impersonal conduct

Conducting business in a professional and objective manner, maintaining a certain level of distance between managers and subordinates.

Technical expertise

The knowledge and skills required for a specific job or role within an organization.

Situational influences

Factors that impact the optimal design of an organization, such as technology and the environment.

Technology

The tools, equipment, and processes used to transform inputs into outputs within an organization.

Environment

The external factors and conditions that affect an organization's operations and performance.

Stable environment

An environment that remains relatively constant over time.

Unstable environment

An environment characterized by uncertainty and rapid change.

Unit or small-batch technology

A technology that produces custom-made products or small quantities of products.

Large-batch or mass-production technology

A technology that manufactures products in assembly line fashion by combining component parts.

Continuous-process technology

A technology that transforms raw materials into finished products through a series of machine or process transformations.

Mechanistic organization

An organizational structure similar to bureaucracy, commonly found in stable environments.

Differentiation

The extent to which an organization is broken down into subunits.

Integration

The degree to which different subunits within an organization must work together in a coordinated fashion.

Organizational size

The total number of full-time or full-time equivalent employees in an organization.

Organizational life cycle

The progression through which organizations evolve as they grow and mature.

Functional (U-Form) Design

An organizational arrangement based on the functional approach to departmentalization.

Conglomerate (H-Form) Design

An organizational design used by a company with unrelated businesses, resulting from unrelated diversification.

Divisional (M-Form) Design

An organizational design based on multiple businesses in related areas operating within a larger organizational framework, resulting from related diversification.

Matrix Design

An organizational design based on two overlapping bases of departmentalization, combining functional departments with product groups or temporary departments.

Hybrid Designs

Organizational designs that combine elements from multiple common forms of organization design.

Team Organization

An approach to organization design that relies heavily on project-type teams, with minimal or no underlying functional hierarchy.

Virtual Organization

An organization with little or no formal structure, often relying on technology and remote work arrangements.

Learning Organization

An organization that prioritizes lifelong learning and personal development of its employees while continuously adapting to changing demands and needs.1. Psychological Contract:The overall set of expectations held by an individual with respect to what he or she will contribute to the organization and what the organization will provide in return.

Contributions

What the individual provides to the organization.

Inducements

What the organization provides to the individual.

The Person-Job Fit

The extent to which the contributions made by the individual match the inducements offered by the organization.

Individual differences

Personal attributes that vary from one person to another.

Personality

The relatively stable set of psychological and behavioral attributes that distinguish one person from another.

The "Big Five" Model of Personality

A popular personality framework based on five key traits.

Agreeableness

A person's ability to get along with others.

Conscientiousness

A person's ability to manage multiple tasks and consistently meet deadlines.

Neuroticism

Extent to which a person experiences anxiety or is poised, calm, resilient, and secure.

Extraversion

A person's comfort level with relationships.

Openness

A person's rigidity of beliefs and range of interests.

The Myers-Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI)

A popular questionnaire used to assess personality types.

Extraversion (E) versus introversion (I)

Extraverts get their energy from being around other people, whereas introverts are worn out by others and need solitude to recharge their energy.

Sensing (S) versus intuition (N)

The sensing type prefers concrete things, whereas intuitives prefer abstract concepts.

Thinking (T) versus feeling (F)

Thinking individuals base their decisions more on logic and reason, whereas feeling individuals base their decisions more on feelings and emotions.

Judging (J) versus perceiving (P)

People who are the judging type enjoy completion or being finished, whereas perceiving types enjoy the process and open-ended situations.

Locus of control

The degree to which an individual believes that his or her behavior has a direct impact on the consequences of that behavior.

Internal locus of control

Individuals who believe they are in control of their lives.

External locus of control

Individuals believe that external forces dictate what happens to them.

Self-efficacy

An individual's beliefs about his or her capabilities to perform a task.1. Authoritarianism:The extent to which an individual believes that power and status differences are appropriate within hierarchical social systems like organizations.

Machiavellianism

Behavior directed at gaining power and controlling the behavior of others.

Self-esteem

The extent to which a person believes that he or she is a worthwhile and deserving individual.

Risk propensity

The degree to which an individual is willing to take chances and make risky decisions.

Emotional Intelligence (EQ)

The extent to which people are self-aware, manage their emotions, motivate themselves, express empathy for others, and possess social skills.

Self-awareness

A person's capacity for being aware of how they are feeling.

Managing emotions

A person's ability to balance anxiety, fear, and anger so those emotions do not overly interfere with getting things accomplished.

Motivating oneself

A person's ability to remain optimistic and to continue striving in the face of setbacks, barriers, and failure.

Empathy

A person's ability to understand how others are feeling, even without being explicitly told.

Social skill

A person's ability to get along with others and to establish positive relationships.

Attitudes

Complexes of beliefs and feelings that people have about specific ideas, situations, or other people.

Cognitive Dissonance

Caused when an individual has conflicting attitudes.

Job Satisfaction or Dissatisfaction

An attitude that reflects the extent to which an individual is gratified by or fulfilled in his or her work.

Organizational commitment

An attitude that reflects an individual's identification with and attachment to the organization itself.

Positive affectivity

A tendency to be relatively upbeat and optimistic, have an overall sense of well-being, see things in a positive light, and seem to be in a good mood.

Negative affectivity

A tendency to be generally downbeat and pessimistic, see things in a negative way, and seem to be in a bad mood.

Perception

The set of processes by which an individual becomes aware of and interprets information about the environment.

Selective perception

The process of screening out information that we are uncomfortable with or that contradicts our beliefs.

Stereotyping

The process of categorizing or labeling people on the basis of a single attribute.

Attribution

The process of observing behavior and attributing causes to it.

Consensus

The extent to which other people in the same situation behave the same way.

Consistency

The extent to which the same person behaves in the same way at different times.

Distinctiveness

The extent to which the same person behaves in the same way in other situations.