Physiology Unit Test

Glucose

The usual form of carbs that humans use

Glycogen

the storage form of carbs that can be broken down

Carbs

4.1 kcal/g, stored as glycogen in the muscle and liver, the body's preferred fuel during moderate/vigorous exercise, breaks down easily and uses little oxygen, comes from plant-based foods

Protein

4.3 kcal/g, stored as muscle and amino acids around the body, 5-10% contribution to endurance events, used for growth and repair

Fats

9.3 kcal/g

Metabolism

a highly complex process by which energy is supplied to the body and energy-rich materials are assimilated by the body for the purpose of ATP synthesis

Resynthesis of ATP

the metabloic process of ATP regeneration, where ADP + P produce ATP, comes from carbs, fats proteins, and phosphcreatine

Krebs cycle

a metabolic process of aerobic energy production where pyruvic acid is metabolized, as are other fuel sources including glucose, fat, and protein

Mitochondria

where the resynthesis of ATP by the aerobic system takes place

Anaerobic threshold

the exercise intensity at which lactic acid begins to accumulate within the blood

Anaerobic pathways

without the use of oxygen, can supply energy of ATP synthesis very quickly, major energy systems ultilized during high-intensity exercise

Aerobic Pathway

In the presence of oxygen, supplies energy for ATP synthesis at a much slower rate, predominate supplier of ATP during endurance events (slower rate of use, greater total use)

Anaerobic Alactic equation

PC+ADP →ATP + Creatine

Anaerobic lactic equation

C6H12O6 + 2ADP + 2P →2C3H6O3 + 2ATP + 2H2O

Aerobic equation

C6H12O6 + 6O2 + 36ADP + 36P →6CO2 + 6H2O+ 36ATP

Phosphocreatine

stored in the muscles and breaks down anaerobically to form phospate and creatine. this releases energy for the resynthesis of ATP

ATP-PC system

-anerobic
-relies on the action of stored ATP and PC
-lasts 10-15 secs
-provides highest rate of ATP synthesis
-no by product

excerise performed by ATP-PC

-high-intensity exercise
-sprints, throws, lifts, and jumps
-takes about 5-10 seconds

Anaerobic Lactic system

-anaerobic
-1-3 mins of high level performance
-involves 11 seperate reactions
-uses glucose and glycogen to make ATP
-yields 2 ATP
-by product is lactic acid

Lactic Acid

a watse product of the glycolysis pathway, converted from pyruvic acid in the absense of O2, impedes the breakdown of glucose and decreases the ability of muscles to contract, associated with burning in the muscles

Cori Cycle

lactcic acid is taken to the liver to be metabolized back into pyruvic acid and then glucose

excerise performed by anaerobic alactic/glycolisys

-400m/800m run, 100/200m swim, hockey shift

The Aerobic system

-3 stages are glycosis, krebs cycle and electron transport chain
- uses glucose, glycogen, fats, and protein to make ATP
-lasts >2-3 mins
-oxidative phosphorylation
--slowest system, most energy produced (most efficient)

exercise performed by the aerobic system

-endurance events (low intensity)
--walking, jogging, long swims

Glycolysis

-breaks down glucose which produces pyruvic acid
-yields 2 ATP
--In the presence of oxygen, pyruvic acid is converted to Acetyl CoA

Advantages of ATP-PC

-instant energy production
--o2 not required

Limitations of ATP-PC

-limited stored ATP and PC

Advantages of anaerobic lactic

-supports high intensity movements
-o2 not required

Limitations of anaerobic lactic

-only glucose can be used
-lactic acid is produced

Advantages of Aerobic system

-Significant quantities of ATP production
--Long duration
-Usage of a variety of fuel sources
-Can also help to remove lactic acid

Limitations of Aerobic system

-sub-max intensity
-cardio-respiratory
-o2 required

Conduction zone

All of the passageways that transport O2 from outside the body to the lungs

Respiratory zone

Involves the structures that enable exchange of gases between the inspired air and the blood

External Respiration

-exchange of O2 and CO2 with the external environment s
-result of increase in pulmonary ventilation and increase in blood flow to the lungs

Internal Respiration

-The exchange of gases at the tissue level, where O2 is delivered and CO2 is removed
-increased as a result of increase in O2 gradient, increase in CO2 gradient, decrease in pH, increase in temp

Cellular Respiration

The process in which the cells use O2to generate energy through various metabolic pathways within the mitochondria

Inspiration

-active process
-contraction of diaphragm (downwards) creates more space in chest cavity
-thoracic cavity expands
-air rushes into lungs to restore balance

Expiration

-can be active or passive
-passive: diaphragm relaxes, thoracic cavity reduces
-active (forced breathing) also involves contraction of thoracic and abdominal walls to reduce cavity size and increased pressure; this occurs during high intensity exercise.

Ventilation (VE)

-the combination of inspiration and expiration
-the volume of air moved by the lungs in 1 minute
-influenced by tidal volume and respiratory frequency

tidal volume (VT)

-Volume of air in each breath
-At rest ~ 0.5L and during exercise can increase to 3-4L

Respiratory frequency (f)

-Number of breaths taken per minute
-At rest ~12 and during exercise can increase up to 30-40

DIffusion

-mediates gas exchange
-movement of a gas or liquid from a region of high concentration to low concentration
-Can only occur if a difference in concentration exists, called a concentration gradient

Gas exchange in the lungs

•Oxygen diffuses into deoxygenated pulmonary capillaries. •Carbon dioxide diffuses in the opposite direction, from the carbon dioxide rich pulmonary blood into the alveoli
•The oxygenated blood follows the pulmonary circulation to reach the heart (left atrium) and is then distributed through systemic circulation.
•Carbon dioxide is exhaled out.

Ideal conditions for gas diffusion

-blood in pulmonary capillaries=high conc of CO2
-lungs=high conc O2
-difference in concentration of C02 and O2 = ideal

What diffusion depends on

- Size of the concentration gradient (↑concentraƟon gradient = ↑ diffusion rates)
-Thickness of the barrier between the two structures.
-Surface area of the two structures.

Partial pressure

the pressure of a single type of gas within a mixture of gases.

Partial pressure at tissues

Reverse relationship-A large PO2 in the blood and lower in the tissue.

Bohr Shift

-increase in muscle activity causes an increase in CO2
-decrease in the pH
-increase in temp

a-VO2 difference

-difference between the O2 in the blood of the artery before arrival at the muscle and the O2 remaining in the vein when the blood leaves the muscle
-reflects the amount of O2delivered to the working muscle.

Adaptations to Training

-Aerobic training leads to very few changes in the respiratory system comparatively.

Alveolar sacs

smallest branches of the respiratory system tubes terminate in clusters of microscopic air sacs

Alveoli

structure where gas exchange takes place between the blood and the atmosphere

Intercostal muscles

muscles where, during inspiration, the ribs are raised upward and outward

Primary roles of the cardiovascular system

- To transport oxygen from the lungs to the tissues and to transport carbon dioxide from the tissues to lungs
- To transport nutrients from the digestive system to the other areas in the body and to transport waste products from sites of production to sites of excretion.
- Thermoregulation (constant body temperature)
- Prevention of infection

The heart

a double pump divided into right and left by the interventricular septum

Right heart

pumps deoxygenated blood to the lungs (pulmonary circulation)

Left heart

pumps oxygenated blood to the rest of the body (systemic circulation)

Arteries

carry blood away from the heart

Veins

carry blood towards the heart

Arterioles

regulate blood distribution to various tissues of the body

Capillaries

responsible for the exchange of gases and nutrients with the tissues

Coronary circulation

blood is supplied to the cardiac muscle tissue through arteries, arterioles, and capillaries

Lub

closing of atrioventricular valves

Dub

closing of semilunar valves

Blood pressure

the force exerted by the blood against the walls of the arteries

Systolic

pressure observed in the arteries contraction phase, when the pressure lessens to a point where blood flow continues, and you hear the first sound

Diastolic

pressure observed in the arteries during relaxation phase, once the sound stops completely and blood continues to flow as normal

Normal BP

120mmHg over 80mmHg

Hypertension

greater than 140mmHg over 90mmHg

Factors affecting BP

diet, hydration, training, response to stimuli

Plasma

fluid component of blood (mostly water)

Red blood cells

transport O2, CO2, nutrients, and waste in the blood
white blood cells

White blood cells

destroy foregin elements, are critical in the function of the immune system

Platelets

regulate blood clotting

Hemoglobin-cardiovascular

protein composed of globin and heme that gives red blood cells their characteristic color

Excitation of the heart

The cardiac muscle cells are excitable, and with electrical stimulation they contract. The contraction of the heart leads to the pumping of blood

SA node

where electrical signals are initiated, leading to the contraction of the heart. AKA the heart’s “pacemaker”

Basic electrical signal path

SA Node --> AV Node --> Bundle of His --> Right and left bundle branches --> Purkinje fibres

Cardiac output (Q)

the volume of blood pumped of the left ventricle in 1 min

Heart rate

the number of times the heart beats in 1 min (bpm)

Stroke volume (SV)

the volume of blood ejected by the left ventricle per beat

Effect of training the heart

ventricular walls become thicker and volume of blood within the ventricle increases (more forceful contraction)

Skeletal muscle pump

each contraction compresses the veins, making the blood flow towards the heart

Thoracic pump

difference in pressure pushes blood from veins in the abdominal cavity into veins in the thoracic cavity

The nervous system

Sends a signal to veins --> veins constrict, forcing more blood back to the heart

Effect of training on blood

increases blood volume, which creates more RBC and increased Q

Bradycardia

abnormally slow heartbeat (less than 60bpm)

Functions of respiratory system

-supply O2 to thhe blood
-remove CO2 from the blood
-regulate blood pH (acid-base balance)

Conduction zone

All of the passageways that transport O2 from outside the body to the lungs(nose, mouth)

Respiratory zone

Involves the structures that enable exchange of gases between the inspired air and the blood(alveoli)

Cellular respiration

The process in which the cells use O2 to generate energy through various metabolic pathways within the mitochondria

Ventilation (VE)

-the combination of inspiration and expiration
-the volume of air moved by the lungs in 1 minute
-influenced by tidal volume and respiratory frequency

Tidal Volume (VT)

-Volume of air in each breath
-At rest ~ 0.5L and during exercise can increase to 3-4L

Respiratory frequency (F)

-Number of breaths taken per minute
-At rest ~12 and during exercise can increase up to 30-40

Diffusion

-mediates gas exchange
-movement of a gas or liquid from a region of high concentration to low concentration
-Can only occur if a difference in concentration exists, called a concentration gradient

Gas exchange in the lungs

•Oxygen diffuses into deoxygenated pulmonary capillaries. •Carbon dioxide diffuses in the opposite direction, from the carbon dioxide rich pulmonary blood into the alveoli
•The oxygenated blood follows the pulmonary circulation to reach the heart (left atrium) and is then distributed through systemic circulation.
•Carbon dioxide is exhaled out.

Ideal conditions for gas diffusion

-blood in pulmonary capillaries=high conc of CO2
-lungs=high conc O2
-difference in concentration of C02 and O2 = ideal

What diffusion depends on

- Size of the concentration gradient (↑concentraƟon gradient = ↑ diffusion rates)
-Thickness of the barrier between the two structures.
-Surface area of the two structures.

Partial pressure

the pressure of a single type of gas within a mixture of gases

Partial pressure at tissues

Reverse relationship-A large PO2 in the blood and lower in the tissue