AP Psych

stimulus

any object or event that elicits a sensory or behavioral response in an organism

cochlea

a coiled, bony, fluid-filled tube in the inner ear; sound waves traveling through the cochlear fluid trigger nerve impulses

sensation

process of sensory receptors receiving input

perception

process of organizing and interpreting sensory information

absolute threshold

minimum stimulus energy needed to detect stimulus

cones

retinal receptors that detect color

place theory of hearing

sound waves generate activity at different places along basilar membrane…does not explain low-pitched sounds

frequency theory of hearing

we sense pitch due to the rate of neural impulses being equal to the frequency of a sound

retina

begins processing visual information (point of transduction)

Weber’s Law

to be perceived as different, 2 stimuli mus differ by a constant percentage

psychophysics

the sub field of psychology devoted to the study of physical stimuli and their interaction with sensory systems

eardrum

when sounds hit the eardrum, it creates vibrations that travel

sensory adaption

diminished sensitivity as a result of constant stimulation importance

semicircular canals

fluid filled tubes in the inner ear that help you keep your balance

skin senses

pressure, warmth, cold, pain

rods

retinal receptors that detect black and white

basilar membrane

thin strip of tissue within the cochlea that contains the hair cells which serve as the sensory receptors for the auditory system

trichromatic theory of color vision

retina contains 3 color receptors…red, blue, and green…combine to make other colors

optic nerve

carries neural impulses from the eye to the brain…visual cortex

sound

a stimulus capable of being heard by an organism

perceptual constancy

perceiving objects as unchanging

difference threshold

the minimum difference between 2 stimuli required for detection

bottom-up processing

processing that begins with sensory input

accommodation

lens changes its curvature and thickness to focus light rays

gate-control theory of pain

the spinal cord acts as a “gate” that can inhibit or facilitate transmission of nerve impulses from the body to the brain

Gestalt Laws of organization

an organized whole

• similarity

• proximity

• continuity

• closure

depth perception

the ability to see objects in three dimensions…judge distance

visual illusions

a misperception of external visual stimuli that occurs as a result of a misinterpretation of the stimuli

feature detector

nerve cells that respond to specific sensory information

opponent-process theory of color cision

opposing retinal processes (red-green, blue-yellow, white-black) enable color vision

top-down processing

analysis that uses prior information

spontaneous recovery

the comeback of a conditioned response after extinction when the unconditioned stimulus is presented again

extinction

the cessation of a learned response

classical conditioning

forms associations between stimuli

conditioned response

a learned response to a stimulus that was previously neutral

variable-interval schedule

response after varying period of time is reinforced

fixed-ratio schedule

a fixed number of responses must occur before reinforcement

conditioned stimulus

stimulus that produces a response due to repeatedly being paired with an unconditioned stimulus

variable-ratio schedule

a varying number of responses must occur before reinforcement

fixed-interval schedule

response after specific time period is reinforced

operant conditioning

rewards and punishments

a type of learning in which behavior is strengthened if followed by a reinforcer or diminished if followed by a punisher

continuous reinforcement schedule

reinforcer follows every response

* rapid learning and extinction

shaping

rewarding successive approximations towards goal

partial reinforcement schedule

slow learning and resistance

stimulus discrimination

the ability to distinguish among different stimuli and to respond differently to them

reinforcement

increasing behavior

cognitive map

mental layout of one’s environment

latent learning

learning not expressed until

acquisition

the initial stage of the learning or conditioning process

insight learning

sudden realization of a problem

neutral stimulus

stimulus that does not produce a reflexive response

observational learning

learning by watching the behavior of others

law of effect

the idea that responses that lead to positive effects are repeated while responses that lead to negative effects are not repeated

stimulus generalization

the tendency to respond to stimuli that are similar to the original conditioned stimulus

unconditioned response

the unlearned response to the unconditioned stimulus

unconditioned stimulus

a stimulus that naturally and automatically triggers a response

punishment

decreases behavior

conservation

the principle (concrete operational reasoning) that properties remain the same despite changes in the forms of objects

accommodation

adapting our current understandings (schema) to incorporate new information

fetus

the developing human organism from 9 weeks after conception to birth

sensorimotor stage

the stage during which infants know the world mostly in terms of their sensory impressions and motor activities

teratogens

agents, such as chemicals and viruses, that can reach the embryo or fetus during prenatal development and cause harm

assimilation

interpreting our new experiences in terms of our existing schemas

schema

a concept or framework that organizes and interprets information

concrete operational stage

the stage of cognitive development during which children gain the mental operations that enable them to think logically about concrete events

insecure attachment

demonstrated by infants who display either a cling, anxious attachment or an avoidant attachment that resists closeness

attachement

egocentrism

the preoperative child’s difficulty taking another’s point of view

adolescence

the transition period from childhood to adulthood, extending from pubertyt to ind

gender

the socially influenced characteristics by

gender identity

our sense of being male, female, or some combo of the 2

theory of mind

people’s ideas about their own and other’s mental states--about their feelings, perceptions, and thoughts, and the behaviors these might predict

zygote

the fertilized egg that enters a 2-week period of rapid cell division

secure attachment

demonstrated by infants who comfortably explore enviornments in the precense of their caregiver, show only temporary distress when the caregiver leaves, adn finds comfort in t

cross-sectional study

research that compares people of different ages at the same point in time

transgender

an umbrella term describing people whose gender identity or expression differs from that associated with their birth-designated sex

temperament

a person’s characteristic emotional reactivity and intensity

longitudinal study

research

preoperational stage

the stage during which a child learns to use language but does not yet comprehend the mental operations of concrete language

formal operational stage

the stage of cognitive developemtn during which people begin to think logcailly about abstract concepts

object permanance

cognition

all the mental activities associated with thinking, knowing, remembering, and communicating

developmental psychology

branch of psychology that studies physical, emotional, and cognitive changes throughout life

fetal alcohol syndrome

physical and cognitive abnormalities in children caused by a pregnant woman’s heavy drinking

scaffold

a framework that offers children temporary support as they develop highersoci levels of thinking

social psychology

the study on how we influence people and what causes our actions

stereotype

aovergeneralized belief about a group of people

role

a set of expectations about a social position, defining how those in the position ought to behave

social facillitation

improved performance in the presence of others

discrimination

unjustifiable negative behavior towards a group and its members

bystander effect

people are less likely to help a person in the presence of others

culture

the behaviors, ideas, attitudes, values, and traditions shared by a group of people

prejudice

negative attitude towards a group of people

aggression

any physical or verbal behavior intended to harm

mere exposure effect

repeated exposure to stimuli increases chance to like

self fulfilling prophecy

belief that can change behavior

conformity

adjusting behavior or thinking to coincide with a group standard

foot in the door phenomenon

agree with small request likely to agree to larger

social exchange theory

social behavior seeks to maximize benefits and minimize costs

conflict

incompatibility of action, goal, or ideas