Biology Final

abiotic factors

non-living components of an ecosystem that can affect the living organisms within it.

biotic factors

living components of an ecosystem that affect other living organisms.

producers

organisms that create energy from photosynthesis, usually plants, at the the lowest trophic level

consumers

organisms that don’t make their own energy, get it from plants or animals

decomposers/detritivores

feed on dead material, feces and other waste to produce inorganic molecules back into the environment

Energy released from an ATP molecule

When the phosphate bond breaks to transfer the energy to nearby molecules in the process and make ADP instead

equasion for photosynthesis

6CO2 + 6H2O + light energy → C6H12O6 + 6O2

chlorophyll

main pigment found in plants

light reaction

what occurs inside the granum

cellular respiration

The process of converting glucose into chemical energy in the presence of oxygen

glycolysis

The process of breaking a glucose molecule down into 2 pyruvic acids. Occurs without oxygen and is responsible for converting NADH back into NAD+

pyruvic acids and NADH

two things that enter krebs cycle

cytoplasm, mitchondria

cell respiration takes place

NADH and FADH2

two types of energy carriers that carry electrons in cell respiration

Glycolysis, Krebs Cycle, ETC

three parts of cellular respiration

lactic acid fermentation

cellular respiration process to provide minimal amounts of energy (2 ATP) through glycolysis then convert the 2 pyruvates into 2 lactic acid molecules.

muscle cells

type of cells that undergo lactic acid fermentation

2 pyruvic acids, 2 ATP, 2 NADH

compounds produced from glycolysis

6 CO2, 4 NADH, 10 FADH2, 2 ATP

compounds produced from Krebs Cycle

36-38 ATP, 6 H2O

compounds produced from ETC

G1, S, G2

3 stages of interphase

cell cycle

series of events that take place in a cell leading to its division and duplication. It consists of two main stages: interphase (G1, S, and G2 phases) and the mitotic phase (M phase).

G1, S, G2, M-phase (mitosis/cytokinesis)

 four parts that make up the life cycle of a cell

synthesis

phase of the life cycle of the cell is when the DNA of the cell is replicated

cytokinesis

name of the process when two newly formed sister cells break completely in half. nuclear membranes reform and either a cleavage furrow or cell plate begin to form

mitosis

name of the process when two newly formed sister cells break completely in half

G1

the stage in the life cycle of the cell when it initially grows

cell differentiation

special functions that cells undergo after division

nucleosomes

DNA that is tightly wound up around proteins called histones and is only visible during mitosis

eukaryotic cell

cell with a nucleus and complex organelles

enzyme

protein that controls the rate (speed) at which the cell cycle occurs

interphase

stage in the cell cycle in which the DNA is not visible

binary fission

type of asexual reproduction in which a single organism divides into two identical daughter cells. commonly observed in bacteria and other unicellular organisms. the DNA replicates and the cell elongates, eventually splitting into two identical cells.

46

The number of chromosomes humans have

prophase, metaphase, anaphase, telophase

stages of mitosis

Benign

describes a group of cells that are not cancerous

S-phase

phase when the nuclear membrane starts to split

anaphase

sister chromatids are pulled apart by the spindle fibers

metaphase

chromosomes line up in the middle the spindle fibers are attached

genotype

alleles of the trait that are inherited in pairs

phenotype

the physical characteristic that the organism exhibits

homozygous

two of the same type of allele

heterozygous

two different alleles inherited

hybrid

heterozygous

P, F1, F2

names of different generations

principle of dominance

that one allele/ trait shows up more in a population that another trait

allele

a type of gene inherited on a chromosome

They would be inefficient, they would take up a lot of room, they would take forever to duplicate

why cells won’t grow too big

principle of probability

likelihood of inheritance of an allele is 50-50 from the parent and the combo of alleles is based on 4 combinations or offspring

incomplete dominance

one allele for a gene is not completely dominant over another allele for that gene

codominance

both alleles in a heterozygous individual are expressed equally and simultaneously, resulting in a phenotype that shows traits of both alleles.

polygenic trait

trait that is influenced by multiple alleles/ genes

prophase I

Crossing-over occurs

true-breeding

An organism that self-pollinates or produces a clone of itself

meiosis

cell division that occurs in sexually reproducing organisms, involves two rounds of cell division, resulting in the production of four haploid cells, each with half the number of chromosomes as the original cell.

geneitcs

study of heredity

punnet squares

chart that shows the probability of genotypes of off-spring from parents

gametes

sex cells

crossing-over

when alleles go to different homologs from their own during Prophase I

2 diploid identical cells

product of mitosis

4 different haploid cells

product of meiosis

nucleotide

monomer of DNA

nucleic acid

polymer of DNA

pedigree

diagram that shows the family genetic history

haploid

describes half the number of chromosomes found in a cell

diploid

describes the type of cells that are produced during mitosis

Adenine, Thymine, Cytosine, Guanine

nitrogenous bases in DNA

nucleus

DNA location

photophase group, Deoxyribose sugar, Nitrogenous base

makes up DNA nucleotide

adenine, uracil, cytosine, guanine

nitrogenous bases in RNA

nucleus and cytoplasm

Location of RNA

photophase group, ribose sugar, Nitrogenous base

makes up RNA nucleotide

helicase

unwinds DNA helix

primase

adds primers (short nucleotide sequences to either end of each strand)

DNA polymerase

add nucleotides one by one to build/ extend the new strands

ligase

adds phosphodiester bonds between nucleotides to “glue” them together

hydrogen bonds

binds the nucleotides between both strands and covalent (phosphodiester) bonds holds each strand nucleotides together

messenger RNA (mRNA)

the message that DNA is transcribed into from nucleus and goes out to the cytoplasm

transfer RNA (tRNA)

the RNA that transfers each Amino Acid during translation to the mRNA bound to the ribosome

ribosomal RNA (rRNA)

makes up the ribosomes that work as translating machinery converting mRNA to Amino Acid sequences

transcription

DNA made into mRNA

translation

mRNA made into proteins (Amino Acids)

genetic mutation

one nucleotide is replaced by another, deleted or added to the existing sequence making it different from the original code

frame shift

when a nucleotide is erased or added to the sequence, shifting all the codons to become new codons and therefore making the amino acid sequence entirely different

substitution

when a nucleotide is replaced by another, affecting only that codon (but can still ruin the entire sequence if it becomes a stop codon for example.

protein

There are 20 of amino acids and they combine to make a sequence by peptide bonding

amino acid

submits for protein

stem cells

A cell without a specialized function assigned just yet.

codon

sequence of three nucleotides that codes for a specific amino acid or serves as a start or stop signal for protein synthesis.

anti-codon

sequence of three nucleotides in a transfer RNA (tRNA) molecule that binds to a complementary codon in messenger RNA (mRNA) during protein synthesis, located at one end of the tRNA molecule and is essential for the accurate translation of the genetic code from mRNA to protein.

A with T, C with G

DNA nucleotide pairings

A with U, C with G

RNA nucleotide pairings

made up with phosphase, deoxyribose or ribose sugar, and a base

makes up a nucleotide

species

a group of living organisms that share common characteristics and can interbreed to produce fertile offspring. It is the basic unit of classification in biology.

population

total number of individuals or organisms of a particular species living in a specific geographical area.

community

group of interacting organisms that may be of the same species or not as long as they share a common habitat

ecosystem

community of living organisms (plants, animals, and microbes) in conjunction with the nonliving components of their environment (air, water, and mineral soil), interacting as a system.

biome

large geographical area characterized by its distinctive plant and animal communities, as well as its climate and geography.

biosphere

where living organisms exist, includes all living things, their interactions with each other and with their environment.

autotroph

makes its own food; producer