Bio 10 unit 2 classmates study guide

What are Catabolic Pathways?

Catabolic pathways are larger molecules being broken down into smaller ones. Energy is required(endergonic)

What are Anabolic Pathways?

Anabolic Pathways -smaller particles combining to make larger

Releases Energy (exogenic)

ATPS energy transfer stems from the fact that....

It contains Three Phosphate Groups each of which is negatively charged so they repel each other.

Describe the ADP/ATP Cycle

Atp is an important molecule found in all living things. It is the "energy currency" of the cell.If the cell needs to spend energy to accomplish a task the ATP splits off one of its three phosphates becoming ADP (Adenosine di-phosphate) + phosphate. )

The energy holding that phosphate molecule and available to do work for the cell.When the cell has extra energy it stores that energy by reattaching a free phosphate molecule to ADP turning it back to ATP (tri-phosphate).

The ATP molecule is just like a rechargeable battery when it is fully charged it is ATP.When its run down its ADP.The battery doesnt get thrown out when its run down it gets recharged.

Explain the process of Storing and Releasing energy

1.Energy from food is required to push a third phosphate group onto ADP

2. Energy from food is then stored as a phosphate bond in the form of ATP

3.Energy is then released when the phosphate bond is broken and is used to fuel our everyday activities

What needs to happen in order for ATP to be produced

A third phosphate group must be added to ADP (energy is required;endergonic)

Define Oxidation-

The loss of electrons

Define Reduction

The gain of electrons

What is NADH/NAD+

NADH and NAD+-electron carriers that carry high-energy electrons to carry electrons to where they are used to do work.

Describe Cellular Respiration

Cellular respiration is the process by which cells derive energy from glucose. The chemical reaction for cellular respiration involves glucose and oxygen as inputs, and produces carbon dioxide, water, and energy (ATP) as outputs. There are three stages to cellular respiration: glycolysis, the Krebs cycle, and the electron transport chain. the process by which cells use oxygen to produce energy from food glucose>> ATP It has four stages 1.Glycolosis 2.pyruvate oxidation 3.Krebs Cycle(Citric Acid Cycle) 4.Electron Transport Chain (ETC)

Describe Glycolysis

glycolysis

occurs in the cytosol

breaking up glucose

breaks up glucose from a 6 carbon molecule into two groups of three carbon molecules (pyruvate)

needs 2 atps

generates 4 atps

net basis-generates 2 net atps and 2 NADH

the 2 byproducts get re-engineered and enter the Krebs Cycle which generates another 2 atp

generates atps and NADH that's used later in the electron transport chain

Describe the Krebs/Citric Acid Cycle

a series of reactions that takes in acetyl CoA and produces carbon dioxide, NADH, FADH2, and ATP or GTP

Location: Mitochondria• Pyruvate→Acetyl COA• 2 ATP (net)• 6 NADH• 2 FADH2

(pre kreb)The pyruvates (2 chains fo 3 carbons) goes through pyruvte oxidation and are then oxidized to 2 carbon compound ,acetyl coa.

and goes out to the atmosphere as co2 (leaves )

NAD+ is also turned into NADH

acetyl CoA then merges with oxolo acidic acid (4 carbon molecule) and they form citric acid(6 carbon molec)

citric acid then oxidized to get back to oxoloacetic acidic acid

Nad+ is reduced to NADH(x2)

ADP>ATp

FAD>>oxidized into FADH2(inputs into electron transport chain)

produced

6 NADH

2atps

2 fadh2

Describe the ETC

a collection of proteins bound to the inner mitochondrial membrane and organic molecules, which electrons pass through in a series of redox reactions, and release energy. The energy released forms a proton gradient, which is used in chemiosmosis to make a large amount of ATP by the protein ATP-synthase

Location: Mitochondria; H+ pumps• Role of oxygen• 32 ATPSummaryof products

Explain How ATP is used by the cell as an energy source

Overall, the hydrolysis of ATP to ADP (adenosine diphosphate) provides the necessary energy for various cellular activities. This energy transfer mechanism allows the cell to carry out essential functions and maintain its biological processes. When ATP is used, it is eventually regenerated through cellular respiration and other metabolic processes, ensuring a continuous supply of energy for cellular activities.

Describe the relationships of glycosis,the citric acid cycle,and oxidative phosphorylation,in terms of their inputs and outputs

The NADH produced during the citric acid cycle is used in the electron transport chain, where it plays a crucial role in generating ATP. These two processes work together to convert nutrients into ATP, the energy currency of the cell.

Summarize the process of photosynthesis

process by which plants and some other organisms use light energy to convert water and carbon dioxide into oxygen and high-energy carbohydrates such as sugars and starches

In photosynthesis, water, carbon dioxide, and energy in the form of sunlight are inputs, and the outputs are glucose and oxygen.

Explain the relevance of photosynthesis to other living things

Identify the reactants and products of photosynthesis

the reactants—water and carbon dioxide—to form new products: glucose (sugar) and oxygen.

Describe the main structures involved in photosynthesis

Photosynthesis primarily involves chloroplasts, which contain thylakoid membranes where light-dependent reactions occur and chlorophyll pigments absorb light energy. Within the chloroplasts, the stroma facilitates light-independent reactions, including the Calvin cycle, which converts carbon dioxide into glucose. Photosystems, such as photosystem I and II, play a crucial role in capturing and transferring light energy. Together, these structures work in harmony to convert light energy into chemical energy, producing glucose and oxygen from carbon dioxide and water.

What is Endosymbiosis

The endosymbiotic theory states that mitochondria and chlopoplasts in today's eukaryotic cells were once separate prokaryotic microbes.

Describe the two stages of photosynthesis

1.Light Reaction-Occurs in the thylakoid

Energy from light is captured through chlorophyll

water is split to create nadph and atp

Oxygen is also created and released

2.Calvin The Calvin cycle (light independent reaction)-occurs in the stroma (little holes/pores on the underside of the leaf)

6 carbon dioxide molecules and atp nadph is turned into glucose it takes 6 turns of the cycle to create glucose

What are c4 and CAM Plants '

C4-make a 4-carbon compound so they can partially close their stomata to prevent water loss

(Ex corn)

Plants that use CAM photosynthesis gather sunlight during the day and fix carbon dioxide molecules at night to conserve water. (Ex Cacti)

Define Stomata

Small openings on the underside of a leaf through which oxygen and carbon dioxide can move

Define Thykaloid

saclike photosynthetic membrane found in chloroplasts

What is rubisco

enzyme that converts inorganic carbon dioxide molecules into organic molecules during the final step of the Calvin cycle it is supposed to bind to co2 but

can be somewhat inefficient, particularly in conditions with high oxygen concentrations and bind to oxygen instead

Describe photorespiration

Photorespiration is a process in plants where an enzyme called RuBisCO makes a mistake during photosynthesis. Instead of adding carbon dioxide to a crucial molecule (RuBP), it adds oxygen, which is not useful for plant growth. This mistake wastes some of the energy from photosynthesis.

Define protein synthesis

process in which cells produce proteins

Describe the difference between DNA and RNA

DNA is responsible for storing and transferring genetic information while RNA directly codes for amino acids and as acts as a messenger between DNA and ribosomes to make proteins.

RNA has the nucleobase uracil while DNA contains thymine.

What 4 nucleotides are found in DNA

adenine, guanine, cytosine, thymine

What binds to what in DNA?

A-T

G-C

What 4 nucleotides are found in RNA?

adenine, guanine, cytosine,uracil

What binds to what in RNA

A-U

C-G

Describe the two principle stages in protein synthesis

Transcription is the first stage, occurring in the nucleus (eukaryotes) or cytoplasm (prokaryotes). Here, the DNA template is used by RNA polymerase to produce messenger RNA (mRNA). The mRNA, a copy of the gene's coding strand with uracil in place of thymine, moves to the cytoplasm for the next step.

Translation, the second stage, occurs in the cytoplasm on ribosomes. Using the mRNA template, tRNA molecules carry amino acids to match the corresponding codons on the mRNA via their anticodons. This process assembles the protein chain based on the mRNA sequence. The ribosome moves along the mRNA, reading codons and linking amino acids into a polypeptide chain until a stop codon signals the end of protein synthesis. The resulting protein undergoes post-translational modifications and folds into its functional structure.

What is RNA Polymerase

RNA polymerase is an enzyme responsible for synthesizing RNA from a DNA template during the process of transcription. It plays a crucial role in gene expression and the production of various types of RNA, including messenger RNA (mRNA), transfer RNA (tRNA), and ribosomal RNA (rRNA

).The enzyme Rna Polymerase unwinds the DNA sequence to be transcribed and then strings together the chain of RNA nucleotides that is complementary to it

What are the three kinds of rna involved in translation

Messenger RNA (mRNA) copies portions of genetic code, a process called transcription, and transports these copies to ribosomes, which are the cellular factories that facilitate the production of proteins from this code.

Transfer RNA (tRNA) is responsible for bringing amino acids, basic protein building blocks, to these protein factories, in response to the coded instructions introduced by the mRNA. This protein-building process is called translation.

Finally, Ribosomal RNA (rRNA) is a component of the ribosome factory itself without which protein production would not occur1.

where can proteins be made

Ribosomes

Summarize protein synthesis.

DNA -> RNA -> Protein. 1.Transcription-In transcription,a section of DNA unwind and nucleotides on it form base pairs with nucleotides of messenger RNA creating a mRNA chain

2. This segment of mRNA then leaves the cell nucleus,headed for a ribosome in the cells cytoplasm where traslation takes place

3. Translation-occurs at the ribosome, which consists of rRNA and proteins. In translation, the instructions in mRNA are read, and tRNA brings the correct sequence of amino acids to the ribosome. Then, rRNA helps bonds form between the amino acids, producing a polypeptide chain.

4.When the chain is finished and foded up,a protein has come into existence

What are introns and exons

introns are junk DNA- noncoding sequences. Exons are functional mRNA coding regions.

What is Mitosis

Mitosis is a type of cell division in which one cell (the mother) divides to produce two new cells (the daughters) that are genetically identical to itself. In the context of the cell cycle, mitosis is the part of the division process in which the

DNA of the cell's nucleus is split into two equal sets of chromosomes.

List out the 4 phases of Mitosis and Draw each

Prophase Prophase is the first phase of mitosis, the process that separates the duplicated genetic material carried in the nucleus of a parent cell into two identical daughter cells. During prophase, the complex of DNA and proteins contained in the nucleus, known as chromatin, condenses.

Metaphase During metaphase, the nucleus dissolves and the cell's chromosomes condense and move together, aligning in the center of the dividing cell.4 days ago

Anaphase, chromosomes break at centromeres and sister chromatids move to opposite ends of the cell

Telophase final stage of cell division in which the spindle disappears and the nucleus forms around each set of daughter chromosomes.

Define cytokinesis

division of the cytoplasm to form two new cells, overlaps with the final stages of mitosis

Define centrosome

an organelle located near the nucleus in the cytoplasm that divides and migrates to opposite poles of the cell during mitosis

Describe the three stages of interphase

G1 phase (cell growth), followed by S phase (DNA synthesis), followed by G2 phase (cell growth)

Discuss the behavior of chromosomes during mitosis and how the cytoplasmic content

divides during cytokinesis

Chromosomes are coiled and become attached to spindle fibers, and then coil back into the nucleus. Cytoplasmic content divides by using the cleavage furrow with the pinching method.

Define the quiescent G0 phase

the stage wherein cells remain metabolically active but do not reproduce unless called to do so

Describe the cell cycle checkpoints

Cell cycle checkpoints are surveillance mechanisms that monitor the order of the major events of the cell cycle. These include growth to the appropriate cell size, the replication and integrity of the chromosomes, and their accurate segregation at mitosis.

Describe the process of binary fission in prokaryotes

binary fission, asexual reproduction by a separation of the body into two new bodies. In the process of binary fission, an organism duplicates its genetic material, or deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA), and then divides into two parts (cytokinesis), with each new organism receiving one copy of DNA.