Midterm for psych

Confederate

 an actor that works for the experiment but the other people doesn't know

Diffusion of Responsibility

Not my problem not my responsibility because many other people were around that could have also done this

Pluralistic Ignorance

Ambiguous situation (Maybe it's not really an emergency)

Darley and Lantane 1967 - Seizure

As more people are present the less someone will come out because you feel that someone else would come out to help

Lantane and Darley 1968- The smoke filled room

• they were in groups of 3

• 75% of them when they were alone left the room to go and get help

• 38% of them reported the smoke when they were in groups of three

• When they were in groups of three, they made themselves hat there is no danger is because they tricked themselves because everyone else was calm

• -THEY DON’T REALIZE THAT THE REACTION OF THE OTHER PEOPLE AFFECTED HOW THEY REACTED

Hartshorne and May 1928

• They set up opportunities for the students to dishonest things (like cheating etc…)

• These situations don't really tell you what these would actually do

• PERSONALITY IS SURPRISLY BAD AT PREDICTING BEHAVIOR

 

Triplett- 1898

•  He made a machine with two fishing tools and reels in the fishing line as fast as they can.

  • One instance the participant was alone spooling in the line and then them with someone else also doing the same thing. 

    • The results were that they did better/faster whenever someone else was there

    • In further research, they also found that some people did worse whenever people are around

Facilitation

making performance better

Zajons’s Theory of Social Facilitation

An audience enhances the emission of the dominant responses

Why does Social Facilitation happen?

• Other people cause an arousal by the mere presence

• We are worried about being judged by other on our performance- THIS IS CALLED EVALUATION APPRENHENSION

Evaluation Apprehension

We are worried about being judged by other on our performance

Variable

 something that can differ between individual or groups

Independent variable

 what we deliberate change (manipulate) in an experiment

Dependent Variable

what we measure in an experiment to see if it is affected by the independent variable

Theory

A set of related propositions intended to describe some aspect of the world; a high-level framework that a high-level framework that guides scientific thinking and predictions

Hypothesis

a prediction about what will happen under particular circumstances; a specific prediction about the results of a particular study

Population

the (usually very large) group you want to learn something about

Sample

The (usually much smaller) group you actually study; you generalize from the sample of the population

Observational Research

 (its like a snapshot-doesn't really tell us about the why)

• Naturalistic Observation

• Archival Research

• Case Studies

• Surveys

 

Correlational Research

 Measuring two or more variables and seeing if there is a relationship between them

Self-Select

participants bring pre-existing differences in extroversion, or marital status, or mood, or whatever, to the study. ‘

The researcher does not control these differences

The reverse Causation Problem

The problem that could go either way

• One Exception

  • Longitudinal Studies- Based on time

The third variable

Something else independently cause the other two variables

The Solution of Correlational research

Experimental Research

Experimental research

Randomly assigns people for different conditions which then lead to elimination of self-select

Extraneous variable

things that randomly differ between different participants (individual differences) or different runs of the same study (chance variation)

Random assignment

Randomly determining which particpants are exposed to which version/condition of the study

random sampling

Randomly deciding who participates in the study at all

Confounding variables

Things that systemically differ between experimental conditions and introduce alternative explanations for results

Between subjects

divide sample into separate group each group and each groups get one experimental conditions

Within subjects

each participants gets all experimental conditions and serves as their own control/comparison

Clever Hans

• Clever Hans was a horse that gained fame in the early 20th century.

• He was claimed to have the ability to perform complex mathematical calculations and answer questions by tapping his hoof.

• Investigations revealed that Hans was actually responding to subtle cues from his trainer and the audience.

• This phenomenon became known as the Clever Hans effect or the "Horse of Mr. von Osten."

• Clever Hans demonstrated the power of observation and unintentional cueing in animal behavior.

• The case of Clever Hans led to advancements in animal psychology and the study of animal cognition.

Single Blind Research

Participants aren't usually told the hypothesis until after the study is complete so that is doesn't changed how the participants acts

Double- Blind design

the person actually running the study also does not know what condition the participant is in, or the hypothesis being tested

External validity

• Definition: External validity refers to the generalizability of research findings to the real world.

• Importance: It ensures that research findings can be applied to a broader population or context.

Internal validity

refers to the extent to which a study accurately measures the cause-and-effect relationship between variables.

Descriptive statics

measures of central tendency and variance

Inferential statistics

Statistical significance test and effect sizes

Measures of Central Tendency

Mean-the average score on a variable

Median- the middle score on a variable

Mode-Most common score on a variable

Measure of Variance

Range and standard deviation

Inferential Statistics

Test is Statistical Significance- are the observed results likely to be due to random chance

Cohen's D

mean difference divided by the standard deviation

Direct Replication

exactly recreates the study

Conceptual replication

Uses different operationalization of the same concepts- helps to make us make theories

An example of synthesis

social facilitation

The Asch Conformity Experiment

• Aimed to study conformity and social influence

• Participants shown a line and asked to match it with one of three comparison lines

• Confederates purposely gave incorrect answers

• Results showed that participants conformed to the incorrect answers of the majority

• Conformity rates varied depending on group size and unanimity

• Demonstrated the power of social pressure and the influence of group norms

Informational Social Influence

Actual coming to believe that the group is right ( they must know something that I don’t)

Normative Social Influence

Going along with the group to avoid rejection/ridicule ( knowing that they are wrong but doesn’t want to cause waves)

In the modified Asch study - What did he find out?

As you break the unanimous consensus in the groups frees the participants to say what they really want to say

The door in the face Technique/ Reciprocal Contention

• Definition: A persuasive technique involving making an extreme initial request followed by a more reasonable request.

• Steps:

  • Start with a large, unreasonable request that is likely to be rejected.

  • After the initial rejection, follow up with a smaller, more reasonable request.

That’s Not all Technique

A persuasive technique where additional benefits or features are offered to enhance the perceived value of a product or service.

1. Purpose: To create a sense of urgency and increase the likelihood of a positive response from the audience.

2. Examples: "Buy one, get one free!" or "Order now and receive a free gift!"

The Norm of Reciprocity

A norm dictation that people should provide benefits to those who benefits them

Foot in the Door Technique

Asking someone to do something trivial before asking a bigger favor

Mostly common in cults- Jim Jones did it gradually

The Milgram Experiments

The main premise is that monsters are usually regular people

The Milgram Experiments

If the learner answers wrong the participants is supposed to deliver a shock

The Milgram Experiment- 2nd Variation

Voice feedback-You can only hear the person getting shocked

The Milgram Experiment-3rd variation

Proximity- Placed the confederate right in front of the leaner where they can see the person getting hurt

The Milgram Experiment- 4th variation

Touch Proximity- The “teacher” had to force the person hand on the shocker

The Milgram Experiment-7th Variation

Experiment Absent- The authority figure was taken out of the room and the experimenter was giving the orders by the phone (Decreased obedience the most)

The Milgram Experiment- 10th Variation

Office Building- They took away the prestige of the experiment being held at Yale but the obedience was still high

The Milgram Experiment- 15th Variation

Contradictory Experiments- Two different experimenters are saying “I can’t do it anymore” and another is saying “we can do it” (NO ONE FINISHED THE EXPERIMENT)

The Milgram Experiment-17th Variation

Two Rebels- Two confederates went against modeling of how to disobey

The Milgram Experiment- 18th variation

Peer Administrators- The participant was told to tell someone else to push the button to give the shock

• Had 90% obedience

• They had no emotional connection because someone else was pushing it

Sheridan and King 1972-Puppies

The participant had to shock the puppies every time the puppy did something wrong (The experiment was impossible for the dog to get right)

Agentic State

a person comes to view themselves as the instrument for carrying out another person's wishes, and they therefore no longer see themselves as responsible for their actions

Engaged Followership

The participants obeys because they accept the goals of the experimenter as valid, and word toward those goals, even if it is stressful to do so

The Abu Ghraib Scandal

The soldiers are doing thus because they are believing that they are being of assistances and helping the cause

They are doing this because of engaged followership

Groupthink

Faulty thinking by members of highly cohesive groups in which the critical scrutiny that should be devoted to the issues at hand is subverted by social pressures to reach consensus

When is groupthink most common with?

Groups usually do groupthink when they have directive leaders

Groups

Makes riskier decisions than the individuals

Groups makes more extreme decisions than individuals

whichever way the individuals are leaning the groups chooses that

Groups polarization

The tendency for groups decisions to be more extreme than those made by individuals, what ever the group is leaning more towards is the direction they go in

The Persuasive Arguments Account

Exposure to additional arguments in favor of one’s preexisting opinion strengthens that opinions

The Social Comparison Account

Compare self to others with the drive to be better than others

The Wisdom of Crowds

• Each answer must be given individually

• Errors must be random, not systematic

Traveling Salesman Problem

A way to connect all the dots in the shortest line length possible

Find the shortest possible route that a salesman can take to visit a set of cities and return to the starting city.

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Deindividuation

A reduced sense of individual identity accompanied by diminished self-regulation that can come over people when they are in a large group

Mob Mentality

Groups has a mind of their own

• These individuals wouldn’t normally do this by themselves

Deindividuation and the Internet

People can hide behind anonymity and say things that they would never say themselves in person

The ABCs of Attitudes

Affect- Emotions and feelings
Behavior
Cognitions-Information and knowledge

The Mere Exposure Effect

The idea that repeated exposure to a stimulus, such as an object or person, leads to greater liking of the stimulus

Zajonc- Mere Exposure-1968

Repeated exposure to a stimulus increases liking or preference for it.

• Flashed multiple Chinese characters and showed them a different amount times

• The ones that were showed the most was the one most people chose/liked

• Familiarity breeds liking: Familiarity with a stimulus leads to positive evaluations.

  • Implicit learning: Mere exposure effect operates at an unconscious level.

Cognitive Dissonance Theory

The inconsistency between a person’s thought, sentiments, and actions creates an aversive emotional and physiological state (dissonance) that leads to efforts to restore consistency

Cognitive Dissonance Theory in the Lab

Sometimes shifts our feeling to makes believe what we are feeling

Cognitive dissonance- Hazing

Control-No initiation

Mild initiations- Read a list mildly embarrassing sexual words

Severe initiation- Read a list of obscene words and two sexually explicit passages to a male experimenter

They had conflicting thoughts of like they went through hell to get into this club

Self Perception Theory

• Infer our won attitudes from our behaviors

• It is how change what we believe ourselves

Why Self Perception Theory different from Cognitive dissonance

Cognitive Dissonance is physiological

Choice Blindness

We don’t notice when something is changed

• If the world tells we made this choice and we just go with it

Persuasion

Attempts to change a person’s beliefs, attitudes, or behaviors

The Elaboration Likelihood Model

A model of persuasion maintaining that there are two different routes to persuasion: the central route and the peripheral route

The peripheral route

source expertise, attractiveness, etc

The Central Route

quality/ strength of the argument

Sleeper effect

An effect that occurs when a persuasive message from an unreliable source initially exerts little influence but later causes attitudes to shift

Need for Cognition

Enjoyment of deep thinking, problem-solving, etc

Attribution

Can be internal (dispositional) or external( situational)

Attribution Theory

A set of concepts explaining how people assign causes to the events around them and the effects of these kind of casual assessments

The Covariation Principle

The idea that behavior should be attributed to potential causes that occur along with the observed behavior

Consensus

Whether most people would behave the same way or differently a given situation

Distinctiveness

Whether a behavior is unique to a particular situation or occurs in many or all situations

Consistency

Whether an individual behaves the same way or differently in a given situation on different occasions