Psych

ambiguity

a perpetual object that may have more than one interpretation

apparent motion

a movement illusion in which one or more stationary lights going on and off in succession are perceived ina single meaning.

attention

a state of focused awareness on a subset of the available perpetual information.

binocular area

depth cues, such as retinal disparity and convergence, that depend on the use of two eyes.

bottom-up processing

perpetual analyses based on the sensory data available in the environment; results of analyses are passed upward toward more abstract representations.

closure

a perpetual organizing process that leads individuals to see incomplete figures as complete.

convergence

the extent to which the eyes converge inward when looking at an object.

depth perception

the ability to see objects in three dimensions although th eimages that srike the retina are two-dimensional

dichotic listening

an experimental technique in which a different auditory stimulus is simultaneously presented to each ear.

distal stimulus

the physical object in the world, the optimal image on the retina.

extrasensory perception (ESP)

the controversial claim that perception can occur apart from sensory input.

figure-ground

the organization of the visual field into objects that stand out from their surroundings.

gestalt

an organized whole

goal-directed selection

reflects the choices made as a function of one's goals.

grouping

the perpetual tendency to organize stimuli into coherent groups.

guided search

a parallel search of the environment for single, basic attributes that guides attention to likely locations of objects with more complex combinations of attributes.

human factors psychology

a branch of psychology that explores how people and machines interact and how machines and physical environments can be made safe and easy to use.

identification and recognition

two ways of attaching meaning to percepts.

illusion

a experience of a stimulus pattern in a manner that is demonstrably incorrect but shared by others in the same perceptual environment

illusory contours

contours perceived in a figure when no contours are physically present.

inattentional blindness

failing to see visible objects when our attention is directed elsewhere.

induced motion

an illusion in which a stationary point of light within a moving reference frame is perceived as stationary.

law of common fate

a law of grouping that states that elements moving in the same direction at the same rate are grouped together.

law of proximity

a law of grouping that states that the nearest elements are grouped together.

law of similarity

a law of grouping that states that the most similar elements are grouped together.

lightness constancy

this tendency to perceive the whiteness, grayness, or blackness of objects as constant across changing levels of illumination.

monocular cues

depth cues, such as interposition and linear perspective, available to either eye alone.

orientation constancy

the ability to perceive the actual orientation of objects despite variations in the orientation of its retinal image.

parapsychology

the study of paranormal phenomena.

perception

th eprocesses that organize information in the sensory image and interpret it as having been produced by properties of objects or events in the external, three-dimensional world.

perpetual adaptation

in vision, the ability to adjust to an artificially displaced or even inverted visual field.

perpetual constancy

perceiving objects as unchanging

perpetual organization

the processes that put sensory information together to give the perception of a coherent scene over the whole visual field.

perpetual set

a mental predisposition to perceive one thing and not another.

phi phenomenon

an illusion of movement created when two or more adjacent lights blink on an doff in quick succession.

preattentive processing

processing of sensory information that precedes attention to specific objects.

proximal stimulus

the optical image on the retina, th ephysicla object object in world

relative motion parallax

a source of information about depth in which the relative distances of objects form a viewer determine the amount and direction of their relative motion in the retinal image.

retinal disparity

comparing images from two eyeballs, where the brain computes distance

selective attention

the focusing of the conscious awareness on a particular stimulus, as in the cocktail party effect

set

a temporary readiness to perceive or react to a stimulus in a particular way.

shape constancy

the ability to perceive the true shape of an object despite variations in the size of its retinal image.

size constancy

the ability to perceive the true size of an object despite variations in the size of its retinal image.

stimulus-driven capture

occurs when features of stimuli-objects in the environment-automatically capture attention, indepenedent of the local goals of a perceiver.

theory of ecological optics

a theory of perception that emphasizes the richness of stimulus information and views the perciever as an active explorer of the environment.

top-down processing

perpetual processes in which information from an indivual's past experience, knowledge, expectations, motivations, and background influence the way a perceved object is interpreted and classsified.

unconscious interference

Helmholz's term for perception that occurs outside of conscious awareness.

visual capture

the tendency for vision to dominate the other senses.

visual cliff

a laboratory device for testing depth perception in infants and young animals.

absolute threshold

the minimum stimulation needed to detect a particular stimulus 50 percent of the time

accomodation

the process by which the eye's lens changes shape to focus near or far objects on the retina

acuity

sharpness of vision

auditory cortex

the area of the temporal lobe responsible for processing sound information

auditory nerve

the nerve that carries impulses from the inner ear to the brain, resulting in the perception of sound

basilar membrane

A structure that runs the length of the cochlea in the inner ear and holds the auditory receptors, called hair cells.

blind spot

the point at which the optic nerve leaves the eye and no receptor cells are located there.

brightness

A psychological sensation caused by the intensity of light waves.

cochlea

a coiled, bony, fluid-filled tube in the inner ear through which sound waves trigger nerve impulses

cochlear implant

This device converts sounds into neural impulses, just like the cochlea would if it functioned properly.

color constancy

perceiving familiar objects as having consistent color, even if changing illumination alters the wavelengths reflected by the object

complementary colors

colors opposite each other on the color wheel

conduction hearing loss

caused by damage to the system that conducts sound waves to the cochlea

cones

color vision

difference threshold

the minimum difference between two stimuli required for detection 50 percent of the time

farsightedness

distant objects are seen clearly but close objects appear blurry

feature detectors

nerve cells in the brain that respond to specific features of the stimulus, such as shape, angle, or movement

fovea

the central focal point in the retina, around which the eye's cones cluster

frequency

the number of complete wavelengths that pass a point in a given time

frequency theory

in hearing, the theory that the rate of nerve impulses traveling up the auditory nerve matches the frequency of a tone, thus enabling us to sense its pitch

ganglion cells

In the retina, the specialized neurons that connect to the bipolar cells; the bundled axons of the ganglion cells form the optic nerve.

gate-control theory

the spinal cord contains a neurological "gate" that blocks pain signals or allows them to pass on to the brain

hue

a particular shade of a given color

inner ear

the innermost part of the ear, containing the cochlea, semicircular canals, and vestibular sacs

intensity

the amount of energy in a light or sound wave, which we perceive as brightness or loudness, as determined by the wave's amplitude

iris

a ring of muscle tissue that forms the colored portion of the eye around the pupil and controls the size of the pupil opening

just noticeable difference (JND)

the minimal change in a stimulus that can just barely be detected

kinesthesis

the sense of movement and body position

lens

the transparent structure behind the pupil that changes shape to help focus images on the retina

loudness

a sound's intensity

middle ear

the chamber between the eardrum and cochlea containing 3 tiny bones (hammer, anvil, and stirrup) that concentrate the vibrations of the eardrum on the cochlea's oval window

nearsightedness

close objects are seen clearly but distant objects appear blurry

olfactory tube

the center where odor-sensitive receptors send their signals, located just below the frontal lobes of the cortex

opponent-process theory

the theory that opposing retinal processes (red-green, yellow-blue, white-black) enable color vision. For example, some cells are stimulated by green and inhibited by red; others are stimulated by red and inhibited by green

optic nerve

the nerve that carries neural impulses from the eye to the brain

pain

an unpleasant sensory and emotional experience associated with actual or potential tissue damage

parallel processing

Processing of several aspects of the stimulus simultaneously

pheromones

odorless chemicals that serve as social signals to members of one's species

photoreceptors

Specialized light-sensitive neurons in the retina that convert light into neural impulses; includes rods and cones

pitch

a tone's experienced highness or lowness; depends on frequency

place theory

in hearing, the theory that links the pitch we hear with the place where the cochlea's membrane is stimulated

priming

An enhanced ability to think of a stimulus, such as a word or object, as a result of a recent exposure to the stimulus

pupil

opening in the center of the iris which light enters eye

response bias

tendency of subjects to systematically respond to a stimulus in a particular way due to nonsensory factors

retina

the light-sensitive inner surface of the eye, containing the receptor rods and cones plus layers of neurons that begin the processing of visual information

rods

Retinal receptors that detect black, white, and gray

saturation

purity of color

sensation

Process that detects physical energy (a stimulus) from the environment and convert it into neural signals

sensorineural hearing loss

hearing loss caused by damage to the cochlea's receptor cells or to the auditory nerves; also called nerve deafness

sensory adaptation

the process in which changes in the sensitivity of sensory receptors occur in relation to the stimulus. (pupils enlarge in a dark room adjust)

sensory interaction

the principle that one sense may influence another, as when the smell of food influences its taste