Environmental Science final

Climate change

Changes in temperature, precipitation, and the frequency and intensity of storms across the world

Global warming

Refers specifically to an increase in Earth's average temperature and is only one aspect of climate change

Sun, atmosphere, oceans

3 factors that exert the most influence on Earth's climate

Greenhouse gases

Atmospheric gases that have three or more atoms in their molecules tend to absorb infrared radiation given off by earth's surface, then re-emit it back downward

Global warming potential

The relative ability of a greenhouse gas molecule to contribute to warming

Aerosols

Microscopic droplets that can have either a warming or cooling effect when present in the atmosphere

Soot particles

"black carbon aerosols" cause warming by absorbing solar energy

Other aerosols (sulfur)

Reflect solar energy and have a cooling effect

Radiative forcing

The amount of change in thermal energy that a given factor exerts on earth's temperature

Positive forcing

Warms the surface

Negative forcing

Cools the surface

Atmospheric positive feedback loop

More atmospheric water vapor could lead to more warming, causing more evaporation

Atmospheric negative feedback loop

More atmospheric water vapor could enhance cloudiness, reflecting sunlight back into space and slowly warming

Milankovitch cycles

Earth wobbles on its axis, varies in its tilt, and experiences changes in the shape of its orbit in regular long-term cycles

Thermohaline circulation

Ocean moves warm, tropical water north, where the heat is released near western Europe

El Nino- Southern Oscillation

Systematic shifts in atmospheric pressure, sea surface temperature, and ocean circulation in the tropical pacific ocean

Paleoclimate

The climate in the ancient past, is vital for providing a baseline against which we can measure changes to the climate today

Climate models

programs that combine what is known about atmospheric circulation, ocean circulation, atmosphere–ocean interactions, and feedback cycles to simulate climate dynamics.

Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change

established in 1988 by the United Nations to review and
summarize all available data in climate studies for
policymakers and the general public

Albedo

As snow and ice melt, less-reflective surfaces (bare
ground or surface water) are exposed. This reduces capacity to reflect light, creating a positive feedback loop.

Thawing permafrost

permanently frozen ground causing the release of underground methane, which further intensifies warming.

Ocean acidification

As carbon dioxide concentrations in the atmosphere rise, the oceans absorb more CO2 which makes seawater more acidic.

Mitigation

Aims to alleviate or reduce the severity of climate change by improving energy efficiency, switching to clean and renewable energy sources, preserving forests, recovering landfill gases, and protecting soil quality

Adaptation

pursues strategies to cushion ourselves from the impacts of climate change.

Carbon capture and storage

technologies or approaches that remove carbon dioxide from emissions and then store it below ground under pressure in deep salt mines, depleted oil and gas deposits, or other underground reservoirs.

Carbon pricing

strategies that are designed to compensate the
public for the external costs we all suffer from climate
change resulting from greenhouse gas emissions.

Carbon tax

Taxing producers, utilities, or motor-vehicle users on the emission of carbon dioxide or the carbon content of fossil fuels

Fee and defend approach

the government transfers the carbon tax, or “fee,” to a tax refund, or “dividend,” given to taxpayers.

Carbon trading

permits are traded for the emission of carbon dioxide. the government sets a cap on the amount of pollution it will allow, then gives, sells, or auctions permits to emitters that allow them to emit a certain fraction of the total amount.

UN framework convention on climate change

In 1992, many countries signed to use a voluntary approach to reduce greenhouse gas emissions. This failed, and emissions kept rising

Kyoto Protocol

In 1997, this mandated signatory nations, by the period 2008–2012, to reduce emissions of six greenhouse gases to levels below those of 1990. The United States was the only nation not to ratify it.

Carbon offsets

voluntary payments paid by a producer
that is unable to reduce its emissions and given to
another institution that can.

Carbon-neutrality

A condition where no net carbon is emitted

Geoengineering

A risky idea that involves taking steps to directly alter Earth’s climate.

Oil/tar sands (lesson 17)

layers of sand or clay saturated with a viscous, tarry type of petroleum called bitumen.

Renewable energy

Energy supplies that will not be depleted by our use

Nonrenewable energy

Energy supplies that will be depleted based on our current
consumption rates. Decades to centuries until depleted

Uses for fossil fuels

transportation, manufacturing, heating, and cooking and to
generate electricity.

Net energy

the difference between energy returned
and energy invested.

fossil fuel formation

produced by anaerobic break down of organisms that lived 100 to 150 million years ago

kerogen

precursor to crude oil produced by geothermal heating

coal

most abundant fossil fuel, a hard blackish substance formed from woody organic matter compressed into dense, solid carbon structures

crude oil

unrefined oil extracted from the ground

natural gas

a gas consisting primarily of methane and other volatile hydrocarbons

oil sands

mixture of moist sand and clay containing 1-20% bitumen, a thick and heavy form of petroleum

oil shale

sedimentary rock filled with organic matter that can be processed into shale oil

methane hydrate

a solid consisting of molecules of methane embedded in a crystal lattice of water molecules

crude oil

a mixture of hundreds of hydrocarbons and must undergo refining, a process that separates the molecules by size

reserves to production ratio

dividing the total remaining reserves by the annual rate of production

directional drilling

a technology that allows drillers to bore down vertically and then curve to drill horizontally

hydraulic fracturing

pumps chemically treated water under high pressure into layers of rock to crack them

syngas

to make cleaner-burning, coal is dried or converted into a cleaner synthesis gas

carbon capture and storage

capturing carbon dioxide emissions, converting the gas to a liquid form, and storing it in the ocean or underground in a geologically stable rock formation.

eminent domain

a policy where courts can set aside private property rights, has been used in some cases to take the land anyway.

energy efficiency

the ability to obtain a given amount of output while using less energy input, results from improved technology

energy conservation

the practice of reducing wasteful or unnecessary energy use, results from behavioral choices

energy intensity

the energy use per dollar of Gross Domestic Product (GDP).

cogeneration

a process in which excess heat produced during the generation of electricity is captured and used to heat nearby workplaces and homes and to produce other kinds of power.

hydroelectric power (lesson 18)

uses the kinetic energy of moving water to turn turbines and generate electricity

reservoir/storage/impoundment approach

harness energy by storing water in reservoirs behind dams, when water passes the dam it turns turbines which generates electricity

run-of-river (diversion) approach

generates energy without greatly disrupting the flow of river water. no water impoundment, minimizes negative impacts such as an ecosystem fragmentation and barriers to established migration patterns

nuclear energy

the energy that holds together protons and neutrons within the nucleus of an atom

nuclear fission

the splitting apart of atomic nuclei

nuclear meltdown

when coolant water is drained from the reactor vessel, temperatures rise inside the reactor core, and metal surrounding the uranium fuel rods begin to melt, releasing radiation

biomass

organic material that makes up living organisms

biofuels

biomass sources converted into fuels to power vehicles, such as ethanol, biodiesel, corn, soybeans, and plant matter

biopower

produced when biomass sources are burned in power plants, generating heat and electricity, such as crop residues, landfill gas, livestock waste

ethanol

produced as a biofuel by fermenting carbohydrate-rich crops (corn)

biodiesel

biofuel for diesel engines produced from vegetable oils (canola)

cogeneration

the production of two types of energy simultaneously

co-firing

biomass combined with coal

solar energy

energy from the sun

passive solar energy collection

designing buildings to maximize absorption of sunlight in winter while keeping the interior cool in the heat of summer.

active solar energy collection

makes use of devices to focus, move, or store solar energy

rock (lesson 19)

solid aggregation of minerals

mineral

naturally occurring solid chemical element or inorganic compound
with a crystal structure, a specific chemical composition, and distinct physical properties

mining

systemic removal of rock, soil, or other material for the purpose of extracting minerals of economic interest

metal

type of chemical that typically is shiny, opaque, and malleable, and conduct heat and electricity

ore

a rock in which valuable minerals have been concentrated

gangue

waste rock and nonvaluable materials

refining

after mining the ore, rock is crushed and the metals are isolated by chemical or physical means

alloy

a metal is mixed, melted, or fused with another metal or nonmetal substance

smelting

heating ore beyond its melting point then combining it with other metals or chemicals

tailings

ore left over after metals have been extracted

solution mining

resources in a deep deposit are dissolved in a liquid and siphoned out

strip mining

layers of soil and rock are removed to expose the resource

overburden

overlying soil and rock that is removed by heavy machinery. after extraction, each strip is refilled with the overburden

mountaintop removal

a hundred of more vertical meters of a mountaintop is removed

quarries

open pits for clay, gravel, sand, stone, huge amounts of rock are removed to get small amounts of minerals

manganese nodules

small, ball-shaped ores scattered across the ocean floor which contain many materials

mining waste

crushed rock left after metals removed

exploration

first stage of mining, least impact, but may disturb wildlife and construction can be damaging

mining and milling

second stage of mining, most negative impact, acid mind drainage (type of effluent), forms leachate, tailings

smelting and refining

third stage of mining, gases emissions which contribute to acid deposition

reclamation

aims to bring a site to a condition similar to its pre-mining condition

artisanal mining

small-scale illegal mining that is dangerous and environmentally damaging

reserve

that portion of the resource that is economically and legally mineable using current technologies

municipal solid waste

non-liquid waste that comes from homes, institutions, and small businesses

industrial solid waste

waste from production of consumer goods, mining, agriculture, and petroleum extraction and refining

hazardous waste

solid or liquid waste that is toxic, chemically reactive, flammable, or corrosive