Lecture Questions

Dorsal and Ventral Perspectives: Which is which? How do you know?

ventral refers to the front of the body, and dorsal refers to the back.

Inductive Method:

“normal” is what we typically observe. Example: we all have a structure that pumps blood and we call it the heart

Hypothetico-Deductive Method:

testing

placebo effect

beneficial effect produced by a placebo drug or treatment, which cannot be attributed to the properties of the placebo itself, and must therefore be due to the patient's belief in that treatment.

statistical Testing

provides a mechanism for making quantitative decisions about a process or processes. The intent is to determine whether there is enough evidence to "reject" a conjecture or hypothesis about the process. The conjecture is called the null hypothesis.

Experimenter Bias vs. Double Blind Method

Experimenter bias is the tendency of a scientist or researcher to introduce bias into an experiment.

\
A double-blind study is one in which neither the participants nor the experimenters know who is receiving a particular treatment.

conclusions

Generalization Theory Law of Nature

What tools do we use to study anatomy?

Cadavers and Dissection-

4 Techniques for physical examination

1-Visual observation- use your eyes

2-Palatation- use your fingers

3-Auscultation- listen to biological sounds

4-Percussion- tap and listen to sounds

The Structural Hierarchy of the Body

1. cellular level
2. tissue level
3. organ level
4. organ system level
5. organism

The Structural Hierarchy of the Body

Whole Body-

Organ Systems-

Organs-

Tissues-

Cells: “Cell Theory”-

Organelles-

Membrane Lipid Bilayers-

Molecules

Atoms

SubAtomic: electrons-protons-neutrons

Are there variations to the rules of structural hierarchy?

yes

Reference Man:

Reference Woman:

Reference Man: 22 yrs 70kg/154 lbs Reference Woman: 22 yrs 58 kg/128 lbs

2\.2 pounds is the same as

2\.2 pounds is same as 1 kg = 1,000 ml = 1 L water

variation is due to

genetics and environment

Where does our fat accumulate?

Visceral body fat, also known as 'hidden' fat, is fat stored deep inside the belly, wrapped around the organs, including the liver and intestines. It makes up about one tenth of all the fat stored in the body. Most fat is stored underneath the skin and is known as subcutaneous fat.

Dextrocardia

the heart is positioned on the right side of the chest instead of its normal position on the left side.

Typical Body Temp=

37oC or 98.6oF

What is a dynamic equilibrium? •

state of balance between continuing processes.

What are some of the sources of body temperature variation?

age, activity, and time of day and During strenuous exercise

What is a “set point”? •

the physiological value around which the normal range fluctuates.

Is there a range for temperature?

body temperature can have a wide range, from 97°F (36.1°C) to 99°F (37.2°C).

What is homeostasis

means stability. Types: Weight, Temperature, Calcium Content, Blood Supply and much more! Loss in homeostasis=disease! Homeostasis is a “dynamic” equilibrium

variation is normal and healthy

different for everyone

Why/when do you Sweat or Shiver?

If we are too cold, shivering helps to warm us up.

If we are too warm, sweating releases heat.

Why do blood vessels Vasodilate (radiate heat) or Vasoconstrict (conserve heat)?

Increasing the amount and speed of blood flowing to and within the skin by widening the blood vessels (vasodilation) allows more heat to be lost thereby reducing body temperature.

Narrowing the blood vessels (vasoconstriction) means less heat will be lost this way thereby maintaining the core temperature of the body.

what occurs during exercise

increased Heart rate – Breathing rate – Body temperature

Exercise  requires O2, creates CO2, and generates heat.

Why does excess exercise lead to a depressant effect in the brain when you work too hard?

Why does excess exercise lead to a depressant effect in the brain when you work too hard?

Why do we experience the chills or fever?

Chills are caused by rapid muscle contraction and relaxation. They are the body's way of producing heat when it feels cold. Chills often predict the coming of a fever or an increase in the body's core temperature.

\
fever: your body is trying to fight an illness or infection.

What is Positive Feedback

\
Positive Feedback: Positive feedback intensifies a change in the body's physiological condition rather than reversing it. A deviation from the normal range results in more change, and the system moves farther away from the normal range. Positive feedback in the body is normal only when there is a definite end point.

positive feedback loops intensify the response until an end point is reached.

What is negative feedback

a mechanism that reverses a deviation from the set point, and in turn, maintains body parameters within their normal range.

negative feedback loops work to prevent an excessive response to the stimulus

What are the eleven organ systems?

integumentary system (skin), skeletal, muscular, nervous, endocrine, cardiovascular, lymphatic, respiratory, digestive, urinary, and reproductive systems.

What is the standard anatomical position?

standing straight, feet flat, toes forward, arms down-palms forward and thumbs out, and eyes straight.

Anatomical Plane:

Directional Location:

• Surface Anatomy:

body cavity

• What are the anatomical planes and the terms of anatomical orientation?

Supine: Face up • (Palm Anterior) • Prone: Face down • (Palm Posterior) • Transverse Plane: horizontal • Frontal Plane: coronal • Midsagittal Plane: medial – Parasagittal Plane: Right/Left Lateral/Medial: outside/inside Oblique: at an angle \* Medial/Lateral Direction • Anterior/Ventral Direction • Superior/Cranial Direction • Inferior/Caudal Direction • Posterior/Dorsal Direction • Proximal: closer to center • Distal: more distant from center • Superficial: On top/above • Deep: Below/Underneath

These are terms describing very specific location 

\

• What are the major cavities

ventral cavity and the dorsal cavity. Dorsal Cavities: Neural tissues

\
Ventral: Thoracic or Abdominal cavities are divided by diaphragm – Thoracic Cavity: Chest • Pleural Cavity: contains lungs • Pericardial: contains heart –

Abdominopelvic Cavity: Gut • Abdominal: above pelvic brim • Pelvic Cavity: Below brim

\
\

What are the major membranes

epithelial and connective tissue membranes.

• How do the axial and appendicular regions differ?

Appendicular= limbs and appendages – Arms and Legs – Proximal or distal? – Lateral or medial? – Deep or superficial?

\
Axial Region=head, neck, and trunk=Continuous with vertebral column Trunk= thoracic and abdominal regions Includes shoulders Clarification: Muscle of shoulders with the Scapula and clavicle are technically part of appendicular skeleton

\

lymphatic fluid where is it located

\

Lymph fluid travels through the lymph vessels and drains into the bloodstream

peritoneal fluid where is it located

Abdomen

Peritoneal fluid is the fluid in the peritoneal cavity, a space between the wall of the abdomen and the organs inside.

Where is the cerebral spinal fluid found

over the surface of the brain and down the length of the spinal cord while in the subarachnoid space.

Where is pericardial fluid found

The pericardium is a double-walled sac that surrounds the heart. Between the inner wall of the pericardium and your heart

Where is pleural fluid located

The pleural fluid is contained in the pleural cavity, which is the space between the internal thoracic wall and the lungs.

membranes: Meninges,

the three membranes (the dura mater, arachnoid, and pia mater) that line the skull and vertebral canal and enclose the brain and spinal cord

Pleural membrane,

A pleura is a serous membrane that folds back on itself to form a two-layered membranous pleural sac. The outer layer is called the parietal pleura and attaches to the chest wall. The inner layer is called the visceral pleura and covers the lungs, blood vessels, nerves, and bronchi.

Peritoneum (Peritoneal membrane),

The peritoneum is the serous membrane that lines the abdominal cavity. It is composed of mesothelial cells that are supported by a thin layer of fibrous tissue and is embryologically derived from the mesoderm.

mesentery

a fold of the peritoneum which attaches the stomach, small intestine, pancreas, spleen, and other organs to the posterior wall of the abdomen.

Pericardial membrane,

The pericardium is a membrane, or sac, that surrounds your heart.

Organs located in the dorsal region of the abdominal region are termed

“retroperitoneal” or behind the peritoneal membrane

example kidney,

What is the scientific method?

a method of procedure that has characterized natural science since the 17th century, consisting in systematic observation, measurement, and experiment, and the formulation, testing, and modification of hypotheses.

• What is the human body’s structural hierarchy?

Whole Body- • Organ Systems- • Organs- • Tissues- • Cells: “Cell Theory”- • Organelles- • Membrane Lipid Bilayers- • Molecules • Atoms • SubAtomic

\

How does Anatomy differ from Physiology?

anatomy: location and the words used to describe structures • How to describe where we feel sick?

physiology: function and words use to describe causes of dysfunction • How to describe why we are sick

What are “functional” groups?

a specific group of atoms or bonds within a compound that is responsible for the characteristic chemical reactions of that compound.

• What makes atoms molecules “polar”

Polar molecules occur when two atoms do not share electrons equally in a covalent bond.

• What determines water “solubility”?

Any molecule’s biological activity is determined by the unique presence or absence of functional groups. These groups determine if a molecule can H-bond in water (dissolve

\
The ability to form hydrogen bonds is determined by the presence of electric charge on atoms/functional groups that can interact with the partial charges present on H2O. -If an atom or molecule can form hydrogen bonds to water it will tend be water soluble! (it can dissolve in H2O!

• What “classes” of molecule are found in the body?

carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, and nucleic acids.

These 3 classes differ with respect to structure, function, water solubility, and energy content

• What are the sub-classes of carbohydrate?

monosaccharides, disaccharides, oligosaccharides, and polysaccharides

\

• What are the sub-classes of lipid?

fatty acyls, glycerides, phospholipids, sphingolipids, steroids, prenol lipids, glycolipids, and polyketides.

• What are proteins and what links amino acids?

long chains consisting of a combination of 20 different amino acids with specific structure and H2O solubility.

\
Peptide Bonds link amino acids

• How do enzymes function?

1) Enzymes only become active within a specific pH or temperature!

2) Enzymes have a specific environment for optimal activity!

3) Each enzyme has unique conditions for optimal activity!

4) They often REQUIRE the presence of a co-factor!

Why does chemistry matter for human health??

aids in the manufacture and application of surgical materials (sutures, artificial skin, and sterile materials).

What are hydrogen bonds?

a weak bond between two molecules resulting from an electrostatic attraction between a proton in one molecule and an electronegative atom in the other.

What determines the ability to form a hydrogen bond

by the presence of electric charge on atoms/functional groups that can interact with the partial charges present on H2O.

If an atom or molecule can form hydrogen bonds to water it will tend be

water soluble! (it can dissolve in H2O!

\
If a molecule cannot H-bond so the molecule cannot dissolve in water.

what determines any molecule’s biological activity

is determined by the unique presence or absence of functional groups. These groups determine if a molecule can H-bond in water (dissolve

organic functional groups- Hydroxyl (-OH)

found in sugars and alcohol

organic functional groups- Methyl (-CH3)

found in fats, oils, steroids, and amino acids

organic functional groups- Carboxyl (-COOH)

found in amino acids, sugars, and proteins

organic functional groups- Amino (-NH2)

found in amino acids and protein

organic functional groups- Phosphate

nucleic acids, ATP

The character of a functional group determines many things including

the molecule’s potential water or fat solubility.

What is the charge of the functional groups? –

Charge: number electrons/protons unequal (ion) – Partial Charge: electrons shared, but unequall

What does it mean to be neutral or uncharged?

if an atom contains equal numbers of protons and electrons, the atom is described as being electrically neutral. On the other hand, if an atom has an unequal number of protons and electrons, then the atom is electrically charged

What is a sphere of hydration?

The charges associated with these molecules will form hydrogen bonds with water, surrounding the particle with water molecules

Why are lipids hydrophobic (water fearing)

The hydrophobic nature of lipids stems from the many nonpolar covalent bonds. Water, on the other hand, has polar covalent bonds and mixes well only with other polar or charged compounds.

What waterproofs your skin?

the keratin

Gas Anesthesia consists of

of lipid soluble molecules- enter exit at lung

Blood is mostly water, so drugs with low water solubility tend to

not dissolve into the blood very well.

Materials with low water solubility tend to dissolve into

fats (lipids) quickly,

lipophilic:

tending to combine with or dissolve in lipids or fats.

hy·dro·pho·bic

1\. tending to repel or fail to mix with water.

hy·dro·phil·ic

having a tendency to mix with, dissolve in, or be wetted by water.

amphipathic

(of a molecule, especially a protein) having both hydrophilic and hydrophobic parts.

Carbohydrates

ketone or aldehyde carbonyls and alcohol hydroxyl groups.

Carbohydrates are hydrophilic substances which are soluble in water and alcohol. The -OH groups of carbohydrates are primarily responsible for their solubility.

\
Carbohydrates have a carbon “back bone” with carboxyl at the end. Each carbon in the chain has a hydrogen and a hydroxyl group. These characteristics give carbohydrates excellent water solubility.

\

Why are carbohydrates are the best choice for energy in the body?

they are fast-acting and turn into energy as soon as they are ingested.

Common Monosaccharides- •

glucose, fructose, and galactose.

Common Disaccharides- •

sucrose, lactose, and maltose.

Common Polysaccharides-

starch, glycogen, and cellulose,

What do carbohydrates look like? Does it have one (mono-), two (di-), or many (poly-) sugar units?

\

Attach three free fatty acids to glycerol to create a

triglyceride.

Attach a phosphate group (polar) to any single fatty acid to create a

“phospholipid”(Plasma Membrane)

Cholesterol is a critical structural part of many important molecules in the body, and especially important as the backbone for membranes, many hormones and bile (digestion).

\

What biological activities do proteins facilitate?

All proteins are made of amino acid subunits!

cell shape and inner organization, product manufacture and waste cleanup, and routine maintenance.

Can you match the protein associated the functions below? • 1) Structural support

collagen

Can you match the protein associated the functions below? 2) Communication with hormones-

oxytocin