Lectures 1-6

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206 Terms

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root
the original common ancestor for that group
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branches
the lineages leading from an ancestor
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clade
an ancestor and all of its descendants
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sister groups
the 2 branches and descendant species that diverged from a common ancestor
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sister groups (clades, species)
each other’s closest relatives, biologically
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bacteria, archaea, eukaryotes
3 domains of the living world
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Tree of Life
the history of branching in all lineages of life
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bacteria and archaea
domains with prokaryotes (cells w/o nuclei)
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eukarya
domain of eukaryotes (cells with nuclei)
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photosynthesis
What is an important defining feature of plants?
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cyanobacteria
Ubiquitous photosynthetic prokaryotes (no nucleus, circular chromosomes, etc.)
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cyanobacteria
Which were the first organisms to do oxygenic photosynthesis (typical carbon-fixing type prevalent today)?
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oxygen rich atmosphere
What set the stage for the rise and diversification of the eukaryotes?
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it was needed for synthesis of amino acids (proteins) and nucleic acid (DNA, RNA)
Why was cyanobacteria’s ability to “fix” nitrogen gass from the atmosphere important?
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N2 → NH4, NO2, NO3
Fixing nitrogen chemical equation
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Primary endosymbiosis
a cyanobacterium was engulfed. This chloroplast has two membranes and is now considered an “organelle” within photosynthetic eukaryotic 
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first photosynthetic eukaryotes
Primary endosymbiosis produced the ____ ____ ____
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chloroplasts, red algae, green algae, land plants
The captured cyanobacterial cell during primary endosymbiosis gave rise to ____ of ____ ____, ____ ____, and ____ ____
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sargassum (brown algae) and euglena (euglenoid)
groups with secondary endosymbiosis
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secondary, tertiary
Dinoflagellates have ____ and ____ endosymbiosis
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Plants
____ are photosynthetic eukaryotes with a chloroplast that has two outer membranes, resulting from *primary* endosymbiosis.
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plantae
that clade (of eukaryotic life) with chloroplasts derived from primary endosymbiosis
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1. Chloroplasts (primary endosymbiosis)
2. Chlorophyll b; starch storage
3. Retention of egg in the parental organism; plasmodesmata; similarities in mitosis and cytokenesis
4. Branched apical growth
5. Protected embryo; cuticle; multicellular sporophyte; gametangia; thick-walled spores
6. Green plants
7. Streptophytes
8. Land plants (embryophytes)
9. Glaucophytes
10. Red algae
11. Chlorophytes (most “green algae”)
12. Other “green algae”
13. Coleochaetophytes (“green algae”)
14. Stoneworts (“green algae”)
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glaucophytes, red algae, chlorophytes (most “green algae”), other “green algae”, caleochaetophytes (“green algae”), and stoneworts (“green algae”)
aquatic groups of plantae
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red algae
these plants vary from single-celled to elaborately branched multicellular organisms

* They have cellulose cell walls
* They only have chlorophyll a (like Cyanobacteria)
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Coralline red algae
among the oldest eukaryotic fossils

* Cell walls have calcium carbonate.
* Extremely important as reef-builders, food for reef organisms, also inhabit deeper waters.
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1. Eukaryote with chloroplasts derived from *primary* endosymbiosis (same as all plants)


2. Chloroplasts with chlorophyll a *and* b
3. Store carbohydrates as **starch*** which has 2 main types of polysaccharide
What is a green plant?
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floridean starch - similar to starch but lacks one of the main polysaccharides
What carbohydrate does red algae make?
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Green algae
the earliest branching *green plants*. They mainly occur in marine or fresh water environments
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streptophyte
Several lineages make up this clade, including land plants; some are still “algae”-like

* Most have plasmodesmata
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Phragmoplasts
thought to help algae grow 3-dimensionally and create cell plates with **plasmodesmata**
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phycoplast (chlorophytes)
cells in telophase have daughter nuclei close together, transverse fibers
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phragmoplast (most streptophytes)
cells in telophase have daughter nuclei fat apart, persistent spindle fibers
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plasmodesmata
channels that penetrate the cell walls of adjacent cells
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Parenchyma
the basic tissue type in the streptophytes with cells linked by plasmodesmata
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oogamy, plasmodesmata, and apical growth
Important characters that evolved in the algae-like ancestors of land plants include…
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haploid, diploid, meiosis, 4 haploid spores


In *Chara* and *Coleochaete* the plants are primarily ___. Fusion of egg and sperm produces a _____ cell, the zygote, which immediately undergoes ____, resulting in ____.
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oogamy
sexual reproduction involving a small motile male gamete and a large much less motile female gamete: occurs in all higher animals and some plants
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*Chara, Choleochaete*, meiosis, 4 haploid spores
In ____ and ____, the plants are primarily haploid. Fusion of egg ad sperm produces a diploid cell, the zygote, which immediately undergoes ____, resulting in ____ ____ ____.
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streptophytes, spirogyra
Not all ____ exhibit oogamy, plasmodesmata, or apical growth. For example, ____ is also “other green algae” and multicellular, but it is filamentous.
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spirogyra
is “other green algae”, and multicellular, but filamentous
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Desmids
part of the “other green algae”
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*Chara*, land plants
*____* may be sister to the rest of the streptophytes, and “other green algae” might be sister to ____ ____, which alters the placement of these characters on the phylogeny.
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* Adapt to dry, high light (***xeric***) conditions
* Develop transport systems for water and nutrients
* Develop structural support
* Find new ways to disperse gametes and progeny
What were the requirements for plants to colonize land?
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cuticle
a waxy coating that slows water loss
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Stomata
closable openings that regulate gas exchange (most lineages)
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Pigments
protect against UV radiation
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* Cuticle
* Stomata
* Pigments that protect against UV radiation
* Spores with thick walls containing sporopollenin
* A mutually beneficial association with fungi (mycorrhizae) that promotes nutrient uptake from the soil
Which were the key adaptations permitted plants to

colonize land?
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1. Cuticle
2. Upper Epidermis
3. Pallisade Layer
4. Spongy Mesophyll
5. Lower Epidermis
6. Cuticle
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Protects spores against drying out and decay
**Spores** with a thick ***sporopollenin*** wall…
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sporopollenin
What protects spores against desiccation and decay?
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Mycorrhizae
Fungi associated with underground plant parts (roots)
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*Ectomycorrhizal* (EM) fungi
wrap themselves around the plant, increasing surface area for water and mineral absorption
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*Vesicular-arbuscular* mycorrhizal (VA) fungi
grow into root cells & exchange water & nutrients
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False
True or False. In meiosis, the parent cell produces 4 gametes incapable of any further division.
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land plants
____ ____ have alternation of generations.
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Chara (stoneworts) life cycle, typical of many algae and other eukaryotes
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gametophyte (haploid)
In land plants ____ is the dominant life form
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sporophyte, nutrition, remains attached
In land plants ____ is dependent on the gametophyte for ____ at some or all stages of development and usually ____
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gametes, mitosis
In land plants ____ are produced by ____ on gametophyte plants.
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multicellular diploid, multicellular haploid
Alternation of generations includes a ____ ____ stage and a ____ ____ stage.
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1. Haploid (n)
2. Diploid (2n)
3. Fertilization
4. Mitosis
5. Meiosis
6. Mitosis
7. Mitosis
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mitosis, meiosis
In alternation of generations, gametes are produced by ____, spores are produced by ____.
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multicellular haploid organisms
Spores develop into ____ ____ ____.
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land plant
This life cycle is a synapomorphy for the ____ clade.
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spores, gametophytes, gametes, gametangia
____ grow to produce haploid multicellular ____, that make ____ by mitosis in ____.
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mitosis, embryo
The diploid zygote develops by ____ into a multicellular ____, which eventually grows into a mature diploid plant.
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sporangia, meiosis
Cells in ____ produce haploid spores by ____.
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sporophyte, sporangia
The multicellular diploid plant is called the ____. It forms spore-producing ____.
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1. Archegonia
2. Antheridia
3. Antheridium (n)
4. Archegonium (n)
5. Sporophyte (2n)
6. Gametophyte (n)
7. Sporangium
8. Ungerminated spores
9. Germinating spores
10. Rhizoid
11. Protonema
12. Bud
13. Gametophyte (n)
14. Gametophyte generation
15. Sporophyte generation
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gametangia
organs that enclose gametes and prevent them from drying out
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embryos
young plants contained within a protective structure
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archegonium
a type of gametangia that produces egg cell
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antheridium
a type of gametangia that produces motile sperm
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bryophyte
nonvascular land plants
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liverworts, hornworts, and mosses
3 bryophyte lineages
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not well understood
Relationships among 3 non-vascular “bryophyte groups” are…
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roots, stems, leaves
Bryophytes have no true ____, ____, or ____
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osmosis
Bryophytes obtain and move water around in a relatively undirected fashion via ____
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support tissue
Bryophytes have no strong ____ ____ plant body
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desiccation tolerance
Bryophytes have signaling proteins that are involved in ____ ____
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sperm, 2
Bryophytes have swimming ____ with ____ flagella
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moist habitats
Bryophytes typically live in ____ ____
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small, vascular system
Bryophytes are mostly ____ in size; they have no ____ ____ to transport water, so size is restricted
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minerals, diffusion
Bryophytes are small enough that ____ can be distributed throughout their bodies by ____
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green, flat leaf
Liverworts have ____, ____ ____-like gametophytes
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apex
Liverwort growth occurs at growing points at the ____ of the plant
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attached, larger
In liverworts, sporophyte remains ____ to the ____ gametophyte
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asexually, sexually
Most liverworts can reproduce ____ and ____
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no
Liverworts have ____ internal water conduction
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no
Liverworts have ____ true stomata
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gametophyte, apical
In liverworts all the green tissue is the ____ stage. Liverworts have ____ growth.
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mutualistic association with fungi
Some nonvascular plants can live on bare rocks, tree bark, and even buildings due to a ____ ____ ____ ____.
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true roots, hairs
Liverworts do not have ____ ____, but they do have ____ that anchor them, and these are colonized by fungi
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stalk, capsule
Liverwort sporophyte has a ____ and ____ (the sporangium)
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attached, dependent
Liverwort sporophyte is ____ to the gametophyte and physiologically ____ on it
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cell elongations
Liverwort sporophytes stalk elongates rapidly by ____ ____ throughout its length
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1. Capsule
2. Seta
3. Sporophyte
4. Gametophyte
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valves, spores, elaters
Liverwort sporophytes usually split into ____ to release ____ and ____
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elaters
assist in dispersal, flex in response to changes in humidity