the 2 branches and descendant species that diverged from a common ancestor
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sister groups (clades, species)
each other’s closest relatives, biologically
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bacteria, archaea, eukaryotes
3 domains of the living world
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Tree of Life
the history of branching in all lineages of life
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bacteria and archaea
domains with prokaryotes (cells w/o nuclei)
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eukarya
domain of eukaryotes (cells with nuclei)
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photosynthesis
What is an important defining feature of plants?
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cyanobacteria
Ubiquitous photosynthetic prokaryotes (no nucleus, circular chromosomes, etc.)
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cyanobacteria
Which were the first organisms to do oxygenic photosynthesis (typical carbon-fixing type prevalent today)?
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oxygen rich atmosphere
What set the stage for the rise and diversification of the eukaryotes?
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it was needed for synthesis of amino acids (proteins) and nucleic acid (DNA, RNA)
Why was cyanobacteria’s ability to “fix” nitrogen gass from the atmosphere important?
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N2 → NH4, NO2, NO3
Fixing nitrogen chemical equation
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Primary endosymbiosis
a cyanobacterium was engulfed. This chloroplast has two membranes and is now considered an “organelle” within photosynthetic eukaryotic
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first photosynthetic eukaryotes
Primary endosymbiosis produced the ____ ____ ____
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chloroplasts, red algae, green algae, land plants
The captured cyanobacterial cell during primary endosymbiosis gave rise to ____ of ____ ____, ____ ____, and ____ ____
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sargassum (brown algae) and euglena (euglenoid)
groups with secondary endosymbiosis
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secondary, tertiary
Dinoflagellates have ____ and ____ endosymbiosis
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Plants
____ are photosynthetic eukaryotes with a chloroplast that has two outer membranes, resulting from *primary* endosymbiosis.
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plantae
that clade (of eukaryotic life) with chloroplasts derived from primary endosymbiosis
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1. Chloroplasts (primary endosymbiosis) 2. Chlorophyll b; starch storage 3. Retention of egg in the parental organism; plasmodesmata; similarities in mitosis and cytokenesis 4. Branched apical growth 5. Protected embryo; cuticle; multicellular sporophyte; gametangia; thick-walled spores 6. Green plants 7. Streptophytes 8. Land plants (embryophytes) 9. Glaucophytes 10. Red algae 11. Chlorophytes (most “green algae”) 12. Other “green algae” 13. Coleochaetophytes (“green algae”) 14. Stoneworts (“green algae”)
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glaucophytes, red algae, chlorophytes (most “green algae”), other “green algae”, caleochaetophytes (“green algae”), and stoneworts (“green algae”)
aquatic groups of plantae
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red algae
these plants vary from single-celled to elaborately branched multicellular organisms
* They have cellulose cell walls * They only have chlorophyll a (like Cyanobacteria)
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Coralline red algae
among the oldest eukaryotic fossils
* Cell walls have calcium carbonate. * Extremely important as reef-builders, food for reef organisms, also inhabit deeper waters.
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1. Eukaryote with chloroplasts derived from *primary* endosymbiosis (same as all plants)
2. Chloroplasts with chlorophyll a *and* b 3. Store carbohydrates as **starch*** which has 2 main types of polysaccharide
What is a green plant?
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floridean starch - similar to starch but lacks one of the main polysaccharides
What carbohydrate does red algae make?
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Green algae
the earliest branching *green plants*. They mainly occur in marine or fresh water environments
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streptophyte
Several lineages make up this clade, including land plants; some are still “algae”-like
* Most have plasmodesmata
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Phragmoplasts
thought to help algae grow 3-dimensionally and create cell plates with **plasmodesmata**
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phycoplast (chlorophytes)
cells in telophase have daughter nuclei close together, transverse fibers
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phragmoplast (most streptophytes)
cells in telophase have daughter nuclei fat apart, persistent spindle fibers
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plasmodesmata
channels that penetrate the cell walls of adjacent cells
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Parenchyma
the basic tissue type in the streptophytes with cells linked by plasmodesmata
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oogamy, plasmodesmata, and apical growth
Important characters that evolved in the algae-like ancestors of land plants include…
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haploid, diploid, meiosis, 4 haploid spores
In *Chara* and *Coleochaete* the plants are primarily ___. Fusion of egg and sperm produces a _____ cell, the zygote, which immediately undergoes ____, resulting in ____.
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oogamy
sexual reproduction involving a small motile male gamete and a large much less motile female gamete: occurs in all higher animals and some plants
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*Chara, Choleochaete*, meiosis, 4 haploid spores
In ____ and ____, the plants are primarily haploid. Fusion of egg ad sperm produces a diploid cell, the zygote, which immediately undergoes ____, resulting in ____ ____ ____.
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streptophytes, spirogyra
Not all ____ exhibit oogamy, plasmodesmata, or apical growth. For example, ____ is also “other green algae” and multicellular, but it is filamentous.
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spirogyra
is “other green algae”, and multicellular, but filamentous
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Desmids
part of the “other green algae”
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*Chara*, land plants
*____* may be sister to the rest of the streptophytes, and “other green algae” might be sister to ____ ____, which alters the placement of these characters on the phylogeny.
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* Adapt to dry, high light (***xeric***) conditions * Develop transport systems for water and nutrients * Develop structural support * Find new ways to disperse gametes and progeny
What were the requirements for plants to colonize land?
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cuticle
a waxy coating that slows water loss
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Stomata
closable openings that regulate gas exchange (most lineages)
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Pigments
protect against UV radiation
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* Cuticle * Stomata * Pigments that protect against UV radiation * Spores with thick walls containing sporopollenin * A mutually beneficial association with fungi (mycorrhizae) that promotes nutrient uptake from the soil
Which were the key adaptations permitted plants to