Physiology

Cells

Basic unit of life

Tissue

Groups of cells working together

Epithelial Tissue

Lines the inner and outer surfaces of organs for protection

Connective Tissue

Provides structure and supports the body (ex. bones, blood)

Muscle Tissue

Allows for movement Divided into skeletal, smooth, and cardiac muscle

Nervous Tissue

Allows for communication in the body

Organs

Different tissues working together

Organ Systems

Different organs working together

Levels of Organization

Cells -\> Tissue -\> Organs -\> Organ Systems

Digestive System Function

Absorbs nutrients for energy and expels waste

Respiratory System Function

Allows for gas exchange (CO2 and O2)

Circulatory System Function

Transports nutrients, gases, and waste Includes the immune + lymphatic system

The 3 Categories of Nutrients

1. Macronutrients 2. Micronutrients 3. Special Nutrient

Characteristics of Macronutrients

- Required in large amounts - All organic (contain carbon and hydrogen) - Are polymers made of multiple monomers

Types of Macronutrients

1. Carbohydrates (polymers of sugars) 2. Fats/Lipids (polymers of fatty acids) 3. Proteins (polymers of amino acids) 4. Nucleic Acids (polymers of nucleotides)

Characteristics of Micronutrients

- Required in small amounts - Contains vitamins and minerals

Characteristics of Minerals

- Inorganic - Cannot be made by the body (must be ingested)

Characteristics of Vitamins

- Organic - Fat Soluble (Vitamins A, D, E, K) - Water Soluble (Vitamin B, C) - The body can make vitamin D with sunlight

Characteristics of Special Nutrients

- Water - Acts as a carrier for dissolved molecules - Allows for metabolic reactions - Functions as a lubricant for bones

Characteristics of Carbohydrates

- All carbohydrates come from green plans (photosynthesis) - Primary energy source

__% - __% of your diet should come from carbohydrates

55% - 60%

Types of Carbohydrates

1. Simple Sugars 2. Complex Carbohydrates

Characteristics of Simple Sugars

- Sorted into monosaccharides and disaccharides - Provide short term energy

Characteristics of Complex Carbohydrates

- Polysaccharides - 3 or more sugars ex. Starch and Fibre (cellulose)

Examples of monosaccharides

glucose, fructose, galactose

Examples of disaccharides

Sucrose, maltose, lactose

Examples of Healthy and Unhealthy Carbs

Healthy - Whole grains, vegetables Unhealthy - Candy, soda

Glycogen (definition)

- Acts as a storehouse for extra glucose in humans - Produced in the liver

Celiac disease is an autoimmune response to \______.

Gluten

Inorganic Molecules (def.)

Non-living matter ex. Water, minerals

Organic Molecules (def.)

Bonded to Hydrogen and Carbon ex. macromolecules

Nutrients (def.)

Raw materials needed by the body to properly run its systems

Essential Nutrients (def.)

Nutrients that cannot be made by the body - Must be ingested

Function of Iron

Produces hemoglobin to transport Oxygen

Function of Vitamin E

- Strengthens red blood cell membranes

Functions of Fats

- Long-term energy storage - Insulation to cells - Absorbs fat-soluble vitamins - Used to make hormones - Main component of cell membranes (phospholipids)

Fat should make up \____ of your diet.

Of the 30% of Fat in your Diet, 10% or less should be \_____

Saturated

Characteristics of Triglycerides

- Composed of glycerol attached to 3 fatty acid chains Divided into 2 groups: 1. Saturated 2. Unsaturated

Characteristics of Saturated Fats

- Only single bonds between each carbon atom - Solid at room temperature ex. Lard

Characteristics of Unsaturated Fats

- At least 1 double bond between 2 carbon atoms - Liquid at room temperature - Divided into 2 types 1. Cis-configuration (healthy) 2. Trans Fats (unhealthy)

Characteristics of Cis Fats

- Naturally occurring - Lower total cholesterol level ex. Omega-3

Characteristics of Trans Fats

- Artificial - High LDL (bad) - Low HDL (good) - Hydrogen bonds are on opposite sides

Cholesterol is divided into \_____ and \_____.

1. Dietary Cholesterol 2. Blood Cholesterol

Characteristics of Dietary Cholesterol

- 20% of your total cholesterol - Found in food containing animal fat - Able to be controlled ex. shrimp

Characteristics of Blood Cholesterol

- 80% of your total cholesterol - Produced by the liver - High-Density LP (HDL) - Low-Density LP (LDL) can clog arteries - Difficult to control

Hydrolysis (def.)

Chemical reaction where water breaks macromolecules into smaller molecules

Enzyme (def.)

Protein molecule that helps controls important chemical reactions in the body

Ways that Food can Spoil

1. Growth of microorganisms 2. Breakdown of fats makes food rancid

The use of \_____ is related to an increased rate of heart disease.

Trans fats

Functions of Proteins

- Acts as enzymes - 50% of our hormones are protein - Antibodies are proteins - Cell receptors are proteins - Proteins are a key building block

Proteins should make up \__ - __% of our daily energy.

10-35%

Characteristics of Proteins

- Made of amino acids - Contain nitrogen

Characteristics of Amino Acids

- 9 essential amino acids which must be ingested. (ex. Tryptophan) - Complete proteins contain all 9 (ex. Beef) - 11 non-essential amino acids which the body can make ex. (Serine) - Incomplete proteins don't contain all essential proteins (ex. Lentils)

Internal Digestion (def.)

- Food is digested inside of the body

External Digestion (def.)

- Enzymes are released into the environment - Food is broken down and diffuses back into the organism

Intracellular Digestion (def.)

- Food is taken within cells and broken down with enzymes

Extracellular Digestion (def.)

- Digestion occurs outside of the cell and moved into the cell

All systems follow these 4 steps:

1. Ingestion 2. Chemical breakdown 3. Absorption 4. Egestion

Types of digestive systems

1. Vacuole (intracellular) eg. paramecium 2. Closed tube (extracellular) - one opening. eg. jellyfish 3. Open tube (extracellular) - two openings. eg. humans

Types of Feeders

Bulk - Ingest large pieces of food. eg. humans Fluid - Obtain nutrients by sucking from a fluid. eg. mosquitoes Filter - Siphon water into the mouth, filter water out keeping organisms in. eg. baleen whales Substrate - Live in food and eat their way through. eg. caterpillars

The 4 types of teeth:

1. Incisors 2. Canines 3. Molars (premolars & molars)

What types of digestion occur in the mouth?

Ingestion and digestion

Our 3 salivary glands have \_____ that empty into the mouth.

tubes

Teeth function

- Physically break down food

Saliva function

- Lubricates food

Tongue function

- Forms bolus - Has the enzyme amylase to break down carbs

Characteristics of the esophagus

- Secretes mucin - Contains 2 types of muscles - Moves food using contractions (peristalsis)

Stomach structure

- Muscular J-shaped organ - Contains pyloric and gastric glands

Stomach functions

- Chemical digestion through HCl + enzymes - Stores food - Physical digestion through oblique muscles

Pyloric glands (def.)

- Located in the stomach - Produces mucous in the stomach

Gastric glands (def.)

- Located in the stomach - Produces HCl

Liver structure

- Connected to the gallbladder + duodenum - Lobed

Liver functions

- Produces bile (emulsifies fat) - Stores glycogen + fat-soluble vitamins - Detoxifies harmful substances

Pancreas structure

- Oval structure below the stomach - Connected to duodenum

Pancreas function

- Produces digestive agents - Controls blood sugar

The oral cavity does these types of digestion:

- Ingestion - Digestion

Duodenum (struc.)

- Very long - Many folds - Villi + microvilli increase surface area (SA)

Duodenum (func.)

- Finishes chemical digestion - Abosrbs nutrients

Jejunum + Ileum (struc.)

- Same as duodenum

Large Intestine (struc.)

- Thicker tube - Path is up, across, down

Large Intestine (func.)

- Reabsorbs water - Absorbs vitamins B + K by probiotic bacteria

Rectum + Anus (struc.)

- Pouch - Opening

Rectum + Anus (func.)

- Egestion- Stores waste - Eliminate waste

Diffusion (def.)

- Movement of molecules from high concentration to low

Gases are exchanged by \_____ but only when \_____ in \_____

- Diffusion - Dissolved - Water

How Oxygen Is Transported

O2 bonds with iron in hemoglobin on red blood cells

How Carbon Dioxide Is Transported

1. Combines with O2 to make carboxyhemoglobin (20% of the time) 2. Dissolves into plasma (10% of the time) 3. Combines with water to make carbonic acid. Then disassociates into H+ ions and HCO3+ ions. (70% of the time)

Mechanisms of Breathing

1. Diaphragm contracts and moves down 2. Ribs move up and out 3. Volume increases \= pressure decreases - Air is forced in

Spirometer (def.)

- Used to measure respiratory air volume

Tidal Volume (def.)

- Volume of gas inspired/expired in a normal breathing cycle

Inspiratory/Expiratory Reserve

- How much extra you can breathe out/in after regular tidal inspire/expire

Residual Volume

- Volume of gas remaining in the lungs after expiration

Vital Volume

- Max amount of gas that can be expired after a max inspiration

The respiratory system is in the \________.

- The brain stem (cerebellum, medulla oblongata, pons)

Medulla oblongata (func.)

- Initiates impulses that travel via nerves to breathing muscles - Adjusts the rate of breathing

Factors that affect breathing

- Increasing/decreasing amount of CO2 level - Excercise \= increased BR - Breath holding \= increased BR - Hyperventilation \= decreased BR

Nasal Cavity (Struc.)

- Mucous - Nasal conchae - Hollow space

Nasal cavity (func.)

- Breathing- Filters, warms, + moistens air

Pharynx (struc.)

- Uvula (closes nasal cavity when swallowing) - Guides food to esophagus - Epiglottis (closes trachea when swalling)