Topic 6- Influences of developments in religious beliefs

What is PME

Post- mortem existence

What do empiricists think about the soul

Reject the idea of the soul as it is unobservable and unverifiable

How does this empiricist view link to Dawkins

Dawkins idea was that the genes we host are passed down through generations and therefore are immortal (scientific view in contrast to the immortal soul)

What is dualism

The belief that the mind and body are two separate substances

How is there a dual nature to our existence

the body is a material object that experiences physical events, the soul is not a material object therefore it occupies no volume of space: it experiences the mental events

What are some examples of dualist ideas (Hinduism)

reincarnation of the soul, reborn into a new body

What are some examples of dualist ideas (Buddhism)

rebirth of the soul- continuity from one life to the next, but the soul always changes

What are some examples of dualist ideas (Some christians)

immortality of the soul, decay of the body

What is monism

Belief that the mind and body are one substance

What are some examples of monist ideas (Bible)

seems to teach that the resurrected body is a soul-body (body and soul are united)

What are some examples of monist ideas (Secular arguments)

living on through our achievements/ through our children via our genes (Dawkins)

What are some general beliefs about the nature of the soul (spirit)

The personality or spirit of a person, which dies with the body

What are some general beliefs about the nature of the soul (mind)

The same as the mind, dying when the brain dies

What are some general beliefs about the nature of the soul (Pneuma)

wind/ breath/ spirit, linking to the breath of life from genesis, making Adam a living being

How does Descartes describe the soul

Have no extension in space and interacting with the brain through the pineal gland

How does Descartes define the soul

Defines as ‘I’- criterion of personal identity as it is irreducible

What does Aristotle say about the soul

The soul is psyche- the ‘form’ of the body- the principle that animates the body, making it a living body

How can the soul be described as ‘pure ego’

Core of what a person is- The brain and body are physical but the soul is non-physical (dualism)

What are the implications of seeing the soul as pure ego

Seen as the unchangeable identity of a person and allows us to be rational beings capable of free choice

What does St Paul suggest about the relationship between body and soul

Humans are body-soul: the bodily and spiritual characteristics in a person are united while the person lives. When the person dies, the whole person dies (soul included). God raises the whole person in a perfect, spiritual body (physical body and soul united)

What is the differing christian view on the body and soul from Paul’s view

The body dies and it is the immortal soul that lives on in the kingdom of heaven

How do the views on the immortality of the soul in Hinduism and Buddhism generally differ from the abrahamic religions

abrahamic religions believe that humans have one life, after which they are judged by God and sent to either heaven or hell (the various forms of these two ideas), but Hinduism and buddhism relay a cycle of death and rebirth, which may continue of countless incarnations

What is the belief about life after death in Hinduism

Reincarnation- the idea than an aspect of a living being starts a new life in another physical body

What is samsara (Hinduism)

The cycle of rebirth

What is the goal of samsara (hinduism)

Moksha- freedom from the round of reincarnation- final release from a person’s worldly conception of self, where the chains of being imprisoned in a physical form are loosened

What is believed to be the feeling at the end of moksha (Hinduism)

The person recognises their fundamental nature, which is true being, pure consciousness and bliss- an experience that is ineffable

What is the belief about the soul in hinduism

Known as atman- its aim is to become one with Brahman (the source of all existence). Atman is seen in the light of pure ego

What is reincarnation governed by (Hinduism)

Karma, which is the law of cause and effect.

How do you receive good Karma (Hinduism)

humans must strive to do their duty (dharma), leading to a positive rebirth in the next round of reincarnation

What do the Hindu beliefs on Karma suggest about life (impact of consequences)

Good and bad consequences of your actions may be felt in the next life rather than the current one

What do the Hindu beliefs on Karma suggest about life (reasons for current experiences)

Unhappy experiences in a person’s current life may be the result of bad karma from a previous existence

What do the Hindu beliefs on Karma suggest about life (hierarchy and institutions)

Explanation for institutions such as the caste system, where membership if a higher caste signifies important positive development form previous karma

What are the strengths of the hindu view on life after death (explanation)

Provides a good explanation for the presence of inequality and suffering

What are the strengths of the hindu view on life after death (creation of souls)

Resolves the issue of the creation of unique and individual souls that only experience misery (we have become self-centred, separating ourselves from Braham)

What are the strengths of the hindu view on life after death (instincts)

Explains infant geniuses and natural instincts (rooted in past lives)

What are the strengths of the hindu view on life after death (testimony)

Backed up by those who have knowledge of their past lives (eg. the scriptures of Bhagavad Gita)

What are the weaknesses of the hindu view on life after death (population)

Steady growth in the world’s population presents a problem (although this discounts the people who have moved up the system from animals and plants in past lives)

What are the weaknesses of the hindu view on life after death (dualism)

Based on dualism, which has its problems since the soul lacks empirical evidence

What are the weaknesses of the hindu view on life after death (spiritual evolution)

We should expect to see a slow spiritual evolution in humans, which we have not seen

What is the belief about life after death in buddhism

Rebirth- the process of being born again

What is the difference between reincarnation (hinduism) and rebirth (buddhism)

What is reborn in the rebirth process is not a pure ego. There is continuity between each incarnation, but not identity, like there is in reincarnation. Rebirth is more like the continuous process of growth than a single, unchangeable (pure ego) soul like atman

What was the doctrine that Buddha taught on the soul

Anatta- meaning no self, to express that a person is in a state of flux (mental and physical characteristics are constantly changing, therefore soul is not a sufficient criterion of personal identity). If a person becomes too accustomed to the illusion of being a self, this leads to unhappiness (like with emphasis on wealth and possession)

What is the Buddhist view on what we are made up of (5)

Physical matter, Sensations, Perceptions (mind interpreting physical sensation), Volitions (intentions), Consciousness (self-awareness)

How does what we are made up of change according to buddhism

These flow and constantly change, upon which we superimpose a singular identity, which we identify by a personal name

What is the concept of self believed to be based on in buddhism

The self is based on craving and desire. It is a fiction, which can be let go of to allow the cycle of rebirth to cease (ending all misery and suffering). This enlightenment is called nibbana

What are the strengths of the Buddhist view on life after death (materialism)

Enables people to let go of materialism and enforces morality by making people think about the consequences of their actions

What are the strengths of the Buddhist view on life after death (explanation of desire)

Offers an explanation for the desire to exist that is formed in emotions

What are the strengths of the Buddhist view on life after death (testimony)

Attested by buddhists who have attained enlightenment in the past (can be observed empirically)

What are the weaknesses of the Buddhist view on life after death (evidence)

It remains difficult to prove any theory that depends upon a meta-physical element of any kind

What are the weaknesses of the Buddhist view on life after death (Hick)

Hick has suggested that a physical husk of a person (consisting of basic memories) may survive their death and which can be accessed by living persons

What is the biblical resurrection theory surrounding resurrection of the body-soul (Jesus)

Christian teaching states that Jesus’ resurrection was physical (eg. gospel accounts showing Jesus having marks on his body and eating fish)

What is the biblical resurrection theory surrounding resurrection of the body-soul (parable of the sheep and the goats)

Jesus taught that all people will be resurrected before judgement and will then be sent to heaven/ hell

Where can biblical teachings about resurrection of the body-soul be seen in christian theology/ teachings

Roman Catholic teaching is that the differences between the resurrected and earthly body are that it becomes immortal, impassible, has a different degree of glory and is ruled by the soul. The new testament suggests an afterlife in paradise, a state of continued bodily existence with God after earth

What does Aquinas believe about the soul

Personal identity is defined by both body and soul. He calls the soul the anima (animates the body).

What did Aquinas believe about resurrection

Resurrection is the only way we can meaningfully speak of life after death as a person cannot be identified with a spiritual existence. Persons are a unity of body and soul (monism) so life after death must involve the soul being reunited with the body

What is the islamic teaching on resurrection

Allah will erect the scales of justice near Mecca and will raise all those who have ever lived to face their final judgement. Before judgement day, souls will wait in barzakh until allah reunites them with their bodies

What did John Hick believe about resurrection

Believed soul and body were unified (monist- one substance). Tries to demonstrate how the resurrection of the body after death by God is possible through his replica theory

What is the general argument of the replica theory

It is not possible for the individual to be resurrected with bodily identity. Instead, what is resurrected is a perfect replica which retains the individuals identity as a unit of body and mind

What is the first scenario used in Hick’s replica theory

Mr X disappears from a New York meeting but appears in a similar meeting in Australia. The australian replica is identical with the same physicality, memories and personality- a direct replica

What is the second scenario used in Hick’s replica theory

Mr X dies in a meeting in NY it appears in a similar meeting in australia. Although the corpse is still in NY, the Australian replica is identical so we have to assume it is the same person

What is the third scenario used in Hick’s replica theory

Mr X dies and appears in a resurrection world. The new body is composed of material other than physical matter although it looks exactly like the original body

What is Hick’s conclusion

Resurrection into a post-mortem world is at least logically possible and that we would deliver the verdict ‘same person’ when considering whether the now deceased, earthly person is the same as the post-mortem person

What are the strengths of Hick’s replica theory (omnipotence)

The theory is plausible if you accept God’s omnipotent existence

What are the strengths of Hick’s replica theory (precedent)

The theory has a precedent in scripture

What are the strengths of Hick’s replica theory (dualism and materialism)

The theory does not depend on dualism and is possibly acceptable to materialism

What are the strengths of Hick’s replica theory (EV)

Using Hick’s own principle of eschatological verification can render this theory plausible

What are the weaknesses of Hick’s replica theory (verification)

There is an underlying assumption that means when it is applied to the verification principle, it is rendered meaningless as there is no way to verify the existence of God or a resurrection world

What are the weaknesses of Hick’s replica theory (logically coherent)

Hick’s argument is that this theory is logically coherent as there is no evidence to the contrary- fallacy of assumption, maybe of composition

What are the weaknesses of Hick’s replica theory (logical possibility)

Logical possibility does not equate to factual possibility

What are the weaknesses of Hick’s replica theory (reasoning)

Based on deductive, instead of inductive reasoning, therefore could be flawed

What are the weaknesses of Hick’s replica theory (result)

Raises more questions than answers (eg. is the body changed to be more perfect in a post mortem world- like a leg regrowing for an amputee, and could this still be classified as a direct replica)

How could Vardy’s puzzle of God possibly support Hick’s replica theory

Vardy comments that, like printing out two copies of the same essay, God could produce an exact reprint using every piece of information about us

What does Descartes say about dualism

In his study, Descares attempted to pose every sceptical augment he could against his existence. He could not disprove his own though, leading to the phrase “I think therefore I am”- this suggests that there us a separate, non-physical mind whose essence is to think

What are the biggest problems with Descartes understanding of dualism (physics)

According to physics, a non-physical thing cannot have control over a physical thing

What are the biggest problems with Descartes understanding of dualism (soul operation)

In terms of his understanding of where the soul operates from (the pineal gland), but this gland has since been discovered to have had nothing to do with this function

What does plato say about the universe

Contains opposed properties, such as light and dark, good and bad. Similarly, the opposite to the physical universe is the metaphysical universe

How does the metaphysical universe differ from the physical universe

Whilst the world is composed of physical materials, the metaphysical universe is composed of pure ideas/ forms (universal ideas)

What are forms

Universal, (sometimes abstract) ideas. For instance, the universal idea of a cat is made up of each particular instance if cat participating in the prefect form of a cat (the ideal blueprint)

What is the overarching form

The form of Good, which defines the supreme quality of goodness in all things and is the closest that Plato gets to the concept of God

What is the soul according to Plato

Perfect idea of a person which is a pre existent immortal form and acts as the bridge between physical and ethereal worlds

what does Plato believe happens to the soul at death

the soul returns to the world of forms and contemplates the forms until they reincarnate

How is knowledge gained according to Plato

From anamnesis (remembering what the soul already knows from its contemplation of pure ideas)

What are the three parts to the soul (B)

The brain- associated with the reasoning part of the soul

What are the three parts to the soul (C)

The chest- associated with thumos (natural aggression)

What are the three parts to the soul (S)

The stomach and reproductive organs- associated with appetite and desire

What is the importance of these three parts of the soul

Reason must rule thumos and desire, otherwise the soul will be out of balance. Therefore reason must be ut above everything else, the soul is immortal in its own right and the real essence of a person

What are the strengths of Plato’s ideas (evidence)

Backed up by empirical evidence of desires and reason

What are the strengths of Plato’s ideas (other faiths)

Similar to christianity, except for the lack of the soul wishing to escape from the body in christianity- this is more seen in hinduism/ buddhism

What are the weaknesses of Plato’s ideas (evidence)

No evidence of the realm of forms

What are the weaknesses of Plato’s ideas (Neuroscience)

suggests that the mind and body are interrelated

What are Aristotle’s 4 causes that explain why things are as they are (M)

The matter from which a thing is made

What are Aristotle’s 4 causes that explain why things are as they are (Fo)

Its form (formal cause)- the shape it takes

What are Aristotle’s 4 causes that explain why things are as they are (E)

Its efficient cause (eg. the efficient cause of humans is parents)

What are Aristotle’s 4 causes that explain why things are as they are (Fi)

Final cause- reason a thing exists (eg. humans exits to reason)

What is the job of the soul (psyche)

Animating principle of the body. It is the formal cause of the body (makes a physical/ living body). The soul enables us to grasp eternal truths, rationalise our sense-experience, introspect, understand the universe and abstract ideas

How does Aristotle’s understanding of the soul differ from Plato's’

The soul is grounded in this world, not the metaphysical, meaning when the body dies, animation is lost so the soul dies

What is the strength of Aristotle’s ideas

The soul as immortal is a popular understanding

What is Gilbert Ryle’s materialist criticism of dualism

Describes the dualist approach as a category mistake (which is to do with how some things depend on the sum of its parts as it cannot exist as a separate entity- eg. a club)/ There is no ‘mind’ beyond the sum total of mental activities, caused by the body, therefore no separate soul (soul without a body)

What is hard materialism

The view that human beings are made from only one kind of substance- material substance (ie. matter). Mental events are just physical events (like steam from a kettle is the same substance as the water in the kettle)

How is hard materialism a reductionist philosophy

Like how steam reduces to water, the soul reduces to matter. Therefore, this suggests that there is nothing that can survive death