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What is socialization?

The process by which children acquire the beliefs, motives, values, and behaviors considered appropriate by their culture.

What is a theory?

What is a theory?

Why is an eclectic approach mentioned in the context of theories?

An eclectic approach combines elements from various theories to provide a comprehensive perspective or approach.

What are some theories about families?

Communism and Family Theories, Structural-Functionalism, Family Systems Theory, Conflict Theory, Social Exchange Theory, Social Constructionism, Feminist Theory, Attachment Theory, and others.

What does Structural-Functionalism suggest about families?

Families have an established structure that allows the group to function cohesively, comprised of equally important ‘pieces’ of the structure. It helps understand why systems and hierarchies exist but doesn't account for complex processes and changes in families.

How does Structural-Functionalism view the SNAF (Standard North American Family)?

The theory suggests structures like the male breadwinner, homemaker wife, and 2.5 kids exist even in post-modern families but are easily recognizable in SNAF.

What is Social Constructionism?

A theory that individual perspectives and experiences are shaped by culturally-influenced beliefs. This includes family upbringing, media influences, and broader cultural narratives.

How does Social Constructionism relate to family therapy?

It provides a framework for family therapists to resolve conflict within the family and alter family dynamics by integrating socially constructed beliefs and perspectives.

Why is Social Constructionism useful in research?

It encourages researchers to avoid biases and preconstructed perspectives of what families are when conducting studies.

What does the Attachment Theory provide a framework for?

Understanding how early parent-child relationships influence subsequent relationships and the formation of internal working models.

In family systems, how is the relationship between two family members influenced?

By their relationships with other members of the family.

According to Cox and Paley, how are families characterized?

By wholeness, order, and hierarchical structures.

What do family systems emphasize regarding wholeness and order?

That families exist as whole entities, with a clear structure and order.

In Attachment Theory, what do children form from relationships with their parents?

An internal working model.

What is the significance of internal working models in Attachment Theory?

They influence mate selection, parenting, and other social ties.

What perspectives are integrated in Attachment Theory?

Psychoanalytic, ethological, and evolutionary perspectives.

How does Attachment Theory view parents and parenting?

Emphasizes their strong influence.

How does Cox and Paley's article describe the hierarchical structure in families?

A non-random order exists with roles such as youngest child, oldest child, and parents.

What does adaptive self-organization in family systems refer to?

Families recalibrating in response to changes like economic stressors, pandemics, and family transitions.

What does the Bioecological Theory suggest about families or individuals?

They are embedded within larger systems influenced by proximal and distal factors.

What does the Microsystem in the Bioecological Theory encompass?

Immediate environment: parents, peers, teachers, neighbors, partners, and children.

How does the Mesosystem in the Bioecological Theory function?

Represents interactions between immediate influences, like parents talking to teachers.

What elements are contained in the Exosystem of the Bioecological Theory?

External forces such as work, healthcare plans, and social media platforms.

How does the Macrosystem in the Bioecological Theory affect individuals?

Through socio-cultural influences like regional and national culture.

What is the Chronosystem in the Bioecological Theory?

Represents time period influences and cohort similarities.

What does the Unified Theory of Development emphasize?

Overlapping influences, bioecological framework, and self-regulation

How does the Unified Theory view self-regulation?

A balance between external regulators early in life and increasing self-regulation with age.

What role do caregivers play in the context of self-regulation?

They provide external regulation to help soothe and comfort.

Why is examining families considered complex in the Unified Theory of Development?

Due to overlapping influences and nuances in family dynamics.

What do family systems emphasize regarding wholeness and order?

Families function as complete units with a defined structure and order.

How is hierarchical structure perceived in family systems?

Through roles and dynamics like the oldest child, youngest child, and parents.

What happens to family systems in response to changes or disruptions?

They undergo adaptive self-organization to recalibrate.

How does the Bioecological Theory break down the influences on a person?

Based on how close (proximal) or distant (distal) they are to the individual.

the Bioecological Theory, what personal qualities impact family relationships?

Genetics, Physiology, and temperament.

What role does self-regulation play as one grows older?

Self-regulation increases due to more autonomy, while reliance on external regulation decreases.

What is the underlying question behind Pavlov's dog experiment?

Is the dog being trained because of the bell, or is Pavlov being trained?

What is Reciprocal Causation?

A cyclic feedback loop where one event causes another, which in turn influences the original event.

How can Reciprocal Causation be illustrated using a student's performance?

A student's low test grade leads to perceived incompetence, affecting subsequent test performances.

How does parental coercion influence a child in the context of Reciprocal Causation?

It makes kids sneakier, which leads parents to become more aggressive.

What initiates the influence in reciprocal causation in the context of parents and kids?

The influence starts from the parent.

What is the distinction between Proximal and Distal Causes?

Proximal causes are close to the target individual, while distal causes are further away.

Give an example of a proximal cause related to student behavior.

How teachers structure activities because students are present within that structure.

Provide an example of a distal cause concerning student behavior.

How teachers learn to structure their classrooms; students aren't present but it impacts them.

What is the difference between a sample and a population in research?

Population is the defined group of individuals from which a sample is drawn.

What challenges might arise from selecting a sample for a study?

Issues like random selection, access problems, and whether the sample is representative of the population.

Why are many samples in developmental research often unrepresentative?

They are largely based on Western educated, industrialized, rich, and democratic societies.

What percentage of the world's population do these unrepresentative samples represent?

They represent 80% of participants, but only 12% of the world population.

How should researchers approach the topic of race in their studies?

By considering the history of systematic racism and oppression in research.

Why is considering intersecting identities essential in research?

Backgrounds influence every aspect of research, affecting findings and interpretations.

Name some intersecting identities that can impact research.

Race, ethnicity, sex, gender, sexual orientation, social class, income, education, and health.

What is Ethnocentrism?

Belief in the superiority of one's own ethnic group.

How is Heterosexism defined?

Discrimination or prejudice against non-heterosexuals based on the belief that heterosexuality is the only "normal" sexual orientation.

What is the importance of operational definitions in the scientific method?

To ensure clarity and prevent assumptions, ensuring studies are truly comparable.

How do different research approaches differ in studying behavior?

Educational research might focus on high-level metrics like expulsions, while psychology might use detailed observations or physiological measurements.

How does the question "How do children develop over time?" differ from more refined research questions?

It's broad, while refined questions focus on specific aspects like emotional development or emotional control over time.

Why is considering the method of sample selection crucial in research?

It determines how generalizable and accurate the findings will be for the broader population.

What is the procedure for a correlational research design?

Info about 2+ variables without researcher intervention.

What are the strengths of correlational research?

Estimates strength and direction of relationships among variables in a natural environment.

What's a limitation of correlational research?

Cannot determine cause-and-effect.

What does a lab experiment involve?

Manipulating an aspect of participants’ environment (IV) to measure change in behavior (DV).

Why might lab experiments be criticized?

Data from a lab may not generalize to the real world.

How does a field experiment operate?

It manipulates the IV and measures the DV in a natural setting.

Why might field experiments be challenging?

Experimental treatments may be less potent and harder to control in the natural environment

What's unique about a natural experiment?

It gathers info about behavior from those who experience real-world manipulation of their environment.

What is the IV in experimental design?

A factor being manipulated by the experimenter.

How is the DV defined in experimental design?

It changes as a function of the IV.

What's the main advantage of experimental design?

It can identify causes.

What's a key disadvantage of experimental design?

Many human variables can't be experimentally manipulated.

How does correlational design establish relationships?

By determining how two variables relate systematically without manipulating environments.

What does a correlation coefficient measure?

The numerical relationship between two factors, ranging from -1 to 1.

Describe a positive correlation.

When one variable increases, the other does too, e.g., more study time leading to better grades.

What is a negative correlation?

As one variable increases, the other decreases, e.g., more depression leading to less optimism.

What risks arise from not accounting for confounds in correlational studies?

Incorrect conclusions with significant consequences.

Why is experimental control essential in determining causation?

Because correlation doesn't imply causation. Need control groups to infer causality.

Describe the cross-sectional research design.

Measures participants at one point, providing hints at age differences and trends.

What's a limitation of cross-sectional designs?

They can't provide data on individual development over time.

What's unique about longitudinal designs?

The same individuals are measured repeatedly over time.

What are the advantages of longitudinal designs?

They offer data on individual development and links between early experiences and later outcomes

Why might a longitudinal design be problematic?

It requires time, money, and faces issues like selective attrition.

Describe the sequential research design.

It identifies if changes are due to true developmental change or effects of specific age groups.

What is the focus of a microgenetic research design?

aims to understand how and why changes occur.

What can confound the results in a cross-sectional design?

Age and cohort effects.

How does a longitudinal design provide insights into development?

By measuring the same individuals over time, it can describe and explain developmental patterns.

What's a key disadvantage of longitudinal designs?

Selective attrition might limit generalizability.

What challenges can arise from practice effects in longitudinal designs?

Repeated measurements might cause participants to remember prior tests, skewing results.

Why might findings from a longitudinal design be generation-specific?

Because research might be more applicable to one cohort than another.

What's a real-world example illustrating the challenges of generalizing findings from a longitudinal study?

Studying Gen Z over time might yield insights specific to that cohort and not apply to other generations.

Give an example of a potential problem in cross-sectional design concerning age.

A researcher can't assume that a freshman's sleeping patterns will necessarily change in the same way as a senior's did.

What is the practice effect in longitudinal research? Provide an example.

When subjects take a spelling test 3 times a year, their scores might improve not just due to development but also because they remember and learn from the repeated testing.

How does the example of language exposure in utero illustrate the importance of considering confounding variables?

Without accounting for educational differences, nutrition, or sibling presence, conclusions about language exposure's effects might be misleading.

What is a Verbal Report in Data Assessment?

It's a type of measurement where individuals provide spoken or written accounts, such as parents rating statements about their experiences with their children.

What are the advantages of Verbal Reports/Questionnaires?

They are standardized, suitable for large-scale studies, and capture subjective feelings.

What are some disadvantages of Verbal Reports?

They are impossible with young children, subject to social desirability bias, and interpretations may change with age.

What is Naturalistic Observation in Behavioral Observations?

Observing behavior in participants' regular settings like home or school.

What are the advantages of Naturalistic Observations?

It captures "normal" behaviors in regular settings and is easier with small children.

What are the disadvantages of Naturalistic Observations?

Infrequent behaviors may be missed, and pinpointing behavior causes is challenging.

What is Structured Observation in Behavioral Observations?

The researcher structures observation in a lab setting.

What are the advantages of Structured Observations?

Rare behaviors can be observed, and the situation is standardized.

What are the disadvantages of Structured Observations?

Observations may not generalize to the "real" world.

What are some examples of Psychophysiological Methods?

Heart rate, EEG brain waves, Cortisol, and Skin conductance.