GENBIO Q3

Genetic engineering

is the direct modification of an organism’s genome

Genome

which is the list of specific traits (genes) stored in the DNA

Genetically Modified Organisms (GMO)

Organisms created by genetic engineering

Gene

is a sequence of DNA on a chromosome that codes for one protein.

Restriction enzymes

are “scissor

Classical Breeding

The desirable product of parent

Recombinant DNA

DNA that comes from 2 sources, Manipulation of DNA in laboratory

Gene Splicing

the process that allows scientists to attach pieces of DNA segments to the DNA of other organisms

Bacteria

are the most common GMOs because their simple structure permits easy manipulation of their DNA.

Cyanobacteria

have been modified to produce plastic (polyethylene) and fuel (butanol) as byproducts of photosynthesis

E. Coli bacteria

have been modified to produce diesel fuel

Transgenic bacteria

gene inserted into bacteria, so they produce things humans need

Biolistics

In this technique, a “gene gun” is used to fire DNA

Geologic time scale

a “calendar” of Earth history

4.6 billion years

Earth’s age is believed to be

EON, ERA, PERIOD, EPOCH

Largest division to smallest division

Precambrian Eon

88% of earth’s history, made up of 3 large eons

Hadean eon

“hell-like & Brimstone” From 4.6 – 3.8 Bya, The formation of the solar system through planetary bombardment

Archean Eon

“ancient or oldest rocks” From 3.8 – 2.5 Bya, Surface of the earth turns from molten to solid rock, Oldest rocks known have been dated to this eon, Continents begin to form

Proterozoic

“first life & big changes” From 2500 – 570 Mya, Largest Eon (~2 Byrs total), Atmosphere enriches with oxygen due to bacteria—ozone layer forms too, First multi

Phanerozoic Eon

”visible life” Greatest diversity of land and ocean organisms, several mass extinction, We are still currently living in this eon

Paleozoic era

“ancient life or the Cambrian Explosion” At the beginning of the Cambrian, the fossil record goes through an exponential increase in diversity and complexity

Cambrian Period

Oldest abundant fossils of multicellular life forms were observed in rocks, Marks the beginning of the Paleozoic Era.

Ordovician Period

The rise of Cephalopods, the dominant predators of this period.

Cephalopods

are a group of mollusks that are related to octopus and squid.

Silurian Period

Fish were a growing importance, Tabulate corals and rugose corals formed

Devonian Period

known as the Age of Fishes, It is famous for the thousands of species of fish that developed in Devonian seas

Carboniferous Period

Vegetation included giant club mosses, tree ferns, great horsetails, and towering trees with strap

Pelycosaurs

evolved from their beginnings in the Carboniferous, These animals look like a reptile, but have skull characteristics that make them more like a mammal.

Dimetrodon

The most famous of the pelycosaurs

Therapsids

ancestors of mammals and share some bone structure characteristics

Mesozoic era

“middle life” Rise of Dinosaurs, Age of reptiles, Warmer climate

Belemnite

A completely new invertebrate species that developed in the Triassic.

Jurassic Period

Age of Dinosaurs

Sauropods

The largest dinosaurs during the Jurassic Period

Theropods

walked on two legs and were carnivorous

Cretaceous Period

The last and longest segment of the Mesozoic Era. It lasted approximately 79 million years

Cenozoic era

“recent life or Rise/Age of Mammals”

Holocene

Where we are now, 11,000 years ago to present

Evolution

The slow, gradual change in a species over time

Fossils

any remains or trace of an ancient organism, usually in sedimentary stones

Artificial Selection

Species variation occurred through mutation and sexual reproduction, but humans select features that are beneficial.

Geographic Distribution

Organisms from prior geographic region that were closely related but different species traveled into surrounding habitats and evolved in these far apart geographic regions.

Convergent Distribution

Organisms that are closely related yet different species live in different geographic locations evolved similarly and adapt to same environment.

Divergent Distribution

Due to differential selection pressure, species with a common ancestor grow increasingly divergent, eventually leading to speciation.

Structures

Evolution led to changes in the shapes and sizes of these bones in different species, but they have maintained the same overall layout, in different organisms can be compared to infer common lineage.

Homologous Structures

Structures with the same set of bones that presumably evolved from common ancestor. They appear different and may have varied functions.

Analogous Structures

Structures that perform the same function but have very different embryological development or set of structures like bones.

Vestigial Structures

Structures or attributes that have lost most of its ancestral function in more recent species.

Embryology

is the study of the development of an organism from an embryo to its adult form.

Molecular Biology

Like structural homologies, similarities between biological molecules can reflect shared evolutionary ancestry.

Gel Electrophoresis

Technique used to separate DNA fragments according to their size

Gene pool

All alleles of the population’s genes

Allele frequency

% of a specific allele in the gene poo

Genetic Equilibrium

This exists when the frequency of alleles remains the same over generations. The population is not evolving

Population Genetics

the study of evolution among groups of the same species from a genetic point of view

Microevolution

Evolution at the genetic level is sometimes

Genes

segments of DNA on a chromosome

Alleles

different versions of a gene

Genotype

an individual's genetic makeup

Phenotype

an individual's appearance

Genetic Evolution

a change in gene frequency over time

Gene frequency

What percent of an allele is present in a population

Natural Selection

Individuals with the best adapted phenotypes will survive and pass on their genes to the next generation.

Charles Darwin

More famously to have created the Natural Selection Theory of Evolution

Artificial Selection

Occurs due to direct human intervention for the purpose of fulfilling specific roles

Genetic drift

occurs when the allele frequency of a population changes by chance.

Bottleneck Effect

A chance event greatly reduces the size of the population

Mutation

in a parent’s DNA could result in offspring with different alleles

Gene flow

is any movement of genes from one population to another

Non-Random Mating

If organisms can choose their mating partners, then the more desirable alleles will have a higher frequency in future populations - This is also called sexual selection.

Chitin

Inside the cell walls of a fungi

Sexual selection

can result in some bizarre traits.

Ernst Mayr

an Evolutionary Biologist that defined species

Species

A population whose members can interbreed & produce viable, fertile offspring • Being reproductively compatible is a key component

Pre-zygotic barriers

are various forms of isolation that prevent fertilization

Post-zygotic barriers

are generally related to fertility & viability of offspring

Pre-Reproduction

This means there is an obstacle to mating or to fertilization if mating occurs

Post-Reproduction

Prevent hybrid offspring from developing into a viable, fertile adult

Ecological Isolation

Even if they live in the same place, they can't mate if they don't come in contact with one another

Temporal isolation

Species that breed during different times of day, different seasons, or different years cannot mix gametes.

Behavioral isolation

Unique behavioral patterns & rituals isolate species

Mechanical isolation

Morphological differences can prevent successful mating

Gametic isolation

Sperm of one species may not be able to fertilize eggs of another species

Biochemical barrier

sperm cannot penetrate egg, receptor recognition: lock & key between egg & sperm

Chemical incompatibility

sperm cannot survive in female reproductive tract.

Hybrid inviability

Genes of different parent species may interact & impair the hybridʼs development

Hybrid sterility

Even if hybrids are vigorous, they may be sterile, chromosomes of parents may differ in number or structure & meiosis in hybrids may fail to produce normal gametes

Hybrid breakdown

Hybrids may be fertile & viable in first generation, but when they mate offspring are feeble or sterile

Systematics

Study of Biological diversity and the relationships among organisms

Taxonomy

the science of describing, naming, and classifying species

Aristotle

Greek Philosopher, Classified all the animals, Historia Animalium, Grouped creatures into hierarchy.

Carl von Linné

Swedish botanist and explorer, Developed the Linnaean system, a taxonomic classification system

International Code of Botanical Nomenclature (ICBN)

Nomenclature code of Algae, Fungi, and Plants

International Code of Zoological Nomenclature (ICZN)

Nomenclature code of Animals

International Code of Nomenclature Bacteria (ICNB)

Nomenclature code of Bacteria

International Committee on Taxonomy of Viruses (ICTV)

Nomenclature code of Viruses

Taxon

A group of organisms

Taxa

plural form of taxon

Domain, Kingdom, Phylum, Class, Order, Family, Genus, Species

Taxonomic Hiearchy