criminology

Relativity of crime

definition of crime varies depending on time, place, and context

legalistic model

crime is an intentional act in violation of criminal law

modified legalistic model

crime is any socially harmful act that is prohibited by the state and punishable by the state

normative model

crime is any antisocial behavior

new/critical model

states that crime is a violation of human rights

consensus model

law reflects the moral interests of society's members at large

conflict model

the state uses law to serve the interests of some at the expense of others

Rational choice paradigm

legitimacy of criminal law is a given, with the only issue being how to dissuade people from violating it

Positivism paradigm

assumes that forces beyond an individuals control, rather than rational decisions, determine criminal behavior.

interactionism paradigm

revolves around actions and reactions of persons and groups, may focus on any deviant or criminal behavior, focuses on victimless crimes

critical paradigm

asks why relatively powerless wrongdoers are so much more subject to criminalization than the powerful ones. Focuses on the full range of deviance

Integration paradigm

the combination of multiple theories

Assumptions of Deterrence Theory

assumes offender is aware of penalties, people have good control over their actions and think rationally, and that they are deterred by the punishment

three principles of deterrence theory

certainty, severity, and swiftness

factors of variation in deterrence theory

varies by individual and the type of crime

informal/extralegal sanctions

can have independent, contingent or interactive effects with formal sanctions

examples of informal/extralegal sanctions

shame/embarrassment, role of religion

crime triangle

three factors that make up a criminal offense: target (victim) criminal desire and opportunity

components of the crime triangle

a likely offender, a suitable target, the absence of a capable guardian

two elements of positivist theory

empiricism and determinism

empiricism

knowledge can only be gained by means of observation and experience

determinism

individual differences are rooted in factors beyond the control of the individual

the female offender

women with more masculine characteristics were thought to be predisposed to criminality

additive model

individuals are most likely to engage in crime when they have biological and sociological risk factors

correlated model

biological risk factors are indirectly related to criminal behavior via their interactions with the social environment

sequential model

environments influence biological functioning

sociological risk factor -> biological risk factor -> criminal behavior

multiplicative model

individuals are exponentially more likely to engage in crime when they have biological and sociological risk factors

concordance

portion of cases where both family members display the same behavioral outcomes (ex twin studies)

egoistic suicide

when individuals experience a lack of social integration or connection with their society or community

ex. a retired elderly person

altruistic suicide

when individuals are excessively integrated into their society or social group to the point where their personal identity is subsumed by the collective identity

ex. cult members

fatalistic suicide

when individuals experience extreme oppression, confinement, or unbearable living conditions, leading them to see death as their only escape from circumstances.

ex. people incarcerated in prison

anomic suicide

When individuals experience a sense of normlessness as a result of sudden disruption or upheaval in the social order

ex. people experiencing job loss during an economic recession

conformist

Someone who follows the method and obtains the goal

innovator

someone who obtains the goal without the method

ritualist

someone who follows the method but doesn't obtain the goal

retreatist

someone who does not obtain the goal or use the method

rebel

someone who changes the goal and the method

Durkheim argued...

that everyone had similar access to legitimate means, but aspirations differed across social class

Merton argued...

the legitimate means for achieving goals was different across social classes

Opportunity theory

suggests crime results from an individuals motivation to commit a crime and the opportunities available to them to commit that crime

general strain theory

an individuals inability to achieve culturally valued goals causes frustration which can leave to deviant behavior

three factors of general strain theory

failure to achieve goals removal of positively valued factors, removal of negatively valued factors

objective strain

events or conditions that are disliked by most members of a given group

subjective strain

events or conditions disliked by the people experiencing them

responses to strain

can result in criminal activity but not always

concentric zone theory

people in the zone of transition (ex. immigration) experience the most anomie and discrimination and thus struggle in adapting to the stresses and demands of their new society

in what concentric zone has the highest crime rate?

(1) central business district

concentric zone circles

1. central business district 2. transitional zone 3. working class zone 4. residential zone 5. commuter zone

social disorganization

the inability of local communities to realize the common values of their residents or solve commonly experienced problems

characteristics of social disorganization

poverty, residential mobility/instability and racial and ethnic heterogeneity

High delinquency rates were associated with

social organization of neighborhoods

immigration revitalization thesis

high concentration of immigrant populations improve social organization and reduce crime

Steidley, Ramey, and Shriders study

gun shop prevalence in urban areas is associated with increased rates of homicides and robberies.

specific deterrence

punitive sanctions intended to discourage the punished individual from engaging in future misconduct

general deterrence

punishment of criminals that is intended to be an example to the general public and to discourage the commission of offenses

alternative explanations for deterrence

backlash effect, crime displacement

crime displacement

shifts in times, places, and forms of crime

backlash effect

punishments makes people more likely to commit crime

routine activities theory

crime is an event that requires the roles of offender and victim

Differential association

people socialized in disorganized neighborhoods are likely to have associations that will encourage antisocial behavior

Differential association theory was inspired by

laws of imitation, symbolic interactionism, social ecology and white-collar crime

Principles of differential association

4. people learn the techniques of committing crime and the mindset of criminal behavior

7. Differential associations can vary in frequency, duration, priority and intensity

social learning theory

stronger emphasis on psychological factors and reinforcement mechanisms in explaining criminal behavior

differential reinforcement

differential reinforcement

actual or anticipated consequences of engaging in certain behavior

code of the street

a set of informal social norms, values, and behaviors that emerge within disadvantaged urban neighborhoods. identifies the sources of what people learn

difference between social learning theory and differential association

differential reinforcement

focal concerns of why crime is committed

trouble, toughness, smartness, excitement, fate, autonomy

techniques of neutralization

techniques that neutralize commitment to norms in order to justify a criminal norms

neutralizations happen...

before the criminal behavior and make the deviant behavior possible

Denial of responsibility (type of neutralization)

dismissing personal responsibility for law violation

denial of injury (type of neutralization)

claiming that the prohibited behavior does not cause harm

denial of the victim (type of neutralization)

transforming the victim of illegal behavior into a justifiable target

condemnation of the condemners (type of neutralization)

denouncing the persons who allege law violation

appeal to higher loyalties (type of neutralization)

justifying a violation by conforming to the moral demands of another group affiliation

social bond theory

individuals are less likely to engage in criminal or deviant behavior when they have social bonds and attachments to conventional society

what makes social bond theory unique

asks why people don't commit crime rather than why they do

four components of social bond theory

attachment, commitment, involvement, belief

general theory of crime

low self control is the cause of all crime

social reaction theories

focus on institutional responses to the individual, argues that people and behaviors are not inherently deviant but become deviant when labeled as such

labeling theory

focuses on what happens after someone commits an act

what theory opposes labeling theory

deterrence theory

primary deviance

the first act of rule breaking that may incur a label of "deviant" and thus influence how people think about and act toward you

secondary deviance

deviant behavior triggered by reactions that follow primary deviance

typology of deviant behavior in labeling theory

falsely accused, conforming, pure deviant, secret deviant

moral entrepreneurs

individuals who seek to influence society to adopt or preserve their morals

moral panics

public perception of behaviors or groups that greatly exaggerate their potential for harm upon society

ban the box

policies that restrict employers from inquiring about criminal histories on initial job applications, first ennacted by Hawaii

statistical discrimination

in the absence of information about criminal history, employers make assumptions based on observable characteristics (ex. race)

D'Alessio, Stolzenberg, and Flexon

found that felony offending among people with a prior criminal conviction was reduced in Honolulu following the implementation of the ban the box law

integration

an approach that views theories of crime as complementary rather than competing, because there is no single cause of crime, advancements in research tools

causal relationships

x and y must be correlated

x must precede Y