AP Psychology Unit 1

Cohert-sequential study

A research method in which a cross section of the population is chosen and then each cohort is followed for a short period of time.

confounding variables

variables that have an unwanted influence on the outcome of an experiment

Controls

constraints that the experimenter places on the experiment to ensure that each subject has the exact same conditions

Correlation

A relationship between varibles, in which changes in one variable are reflected in changes in the other variable- as in the correlation between a child's age and height

correlation coefficient

a number between -1 and +1 expressing the degree of relationship between two variables

correlational study

A type of research that is mainly statistical in nature. Correlational studies determine the relationship (or correlation) between two variables

cross sectional study

A type of study in which a representative cross section of the population is tested or surveyed at one specific time.

Data

Pieces of information, especially information gathered by a researcher to be used in testing a hypothesis.

Dependent Variable

The measured outcome of a study; the responses of the subjects in a study.

Descriptive Variable

Characteristics that describe the sample and provide a composite picture of the subjects of the study; they are not manipulated or controlled by the researcher.

descriptive statistics

statistical procedures used to describe characteristics and responses of groups of subjects

Double Blind Study

An experimental procedure in which both researchers and participants are uninformed about the nature of the independent variable being administered

Emperical Investigation

An approach to research that relies on sensory experience and observation as research data

Ex Post Facto

Research in which we choose subjects based on a pre-existing condition.

expectancy bias

The researcher allowing his or her expectations to affect the outcome of a study.

Experiment

A kind of research in which the researcher controls all the conditions and directly manipulates the conditions, including the independent variable.

frequency distribution

A summary chart, showing how frequently each of the various scores in a set of data occurs

Histogram

a bar graph depicting a frequency distribution. The height of the bars indicates the frequency of a group scores.

Hypothesis

A statement predicting the outcome of a scientific study; a statement describing the relationship among variables in a study.

independent variable

A stimulus condition so named because the experimenter changes it independently of all the other carefully controlled experimental conditions

inferential statistics

statistical techniques (based on probability theory) used to assess whether the results of a study are reliable or whether they might be simply the result of chance; often used to determine whether two or more groups are essentially the same or different

longitudinal study

a type of study in which one group of subjects is followed and observed for an extended period of time

mean

The measure of central tendency most often used to describe a set of data-calculated by adding all the scores and dividing by the number of scores

median

a measure of central tendency for a distribution, represented by the score that sperates the upper half of the scores in a distribution from the lower half.

mode

a measure of central tendency for a distribution, represented by the score that occurs more often than any other

Naturalistic observation

A research method in which subjects are observed in their natural environment.

Normal distribution

a bell-shaped curve, describing the spread of a characteristic throughout a population

operational definitions

Specific description of concepts involving the conditions of a scientific study. Operational definitions are stated in terms of how concepts are to be measured or what operations are being employed to produce them

personal bias

the researcher allowing personal beliefs to affect the outcome of a study

random assignment

Each subject of the sample has an equal likelihood of being chosen for the experimental group of an experiment

Random Presentation

A process by which chance alone determines the order in which the stimulus is presnted

random sample

a sample group of subjects selected by chance (Without biased selection techniques)

replicate

In research this refers to doing a study over to see whether the same results are obtained. As a control for bias, replication is often done by someone other than the researcher who performed the original study

representative sample

a sample obtained in such a way that it reflects the distribution of important variables in the larger population in which the researchers are interested; variables such as age, income level, ethnicity, and geographic distribution

Scientofic method

A five-step process for empirical investigation of hypotheses under conditions designed to control biases and subjective judgments

significant difference

Psychologists accept a difference between the groups as "real", or significant, when the probability that it might be due to an atypical sample drawn by chance is less than 5 in 100.

standard deviation

a measure of variability that indicated the average difference between the scores and their mean

survey

A quasi-experimental method in which questions are asked to subjects. When designing a survey, the researcher has to be careful that the questions are not skewed or biased toward a particular answer

Theory

A testable explanation for a set of facts or observations. In Science, a theory is not just speculation or a guess

Applied Psychology

Psychologist who use the knowledge developed by experimental psychologists to solve human problems

Behavioral View

a psychological perspective that finds the source of our actions in environmental stimuli, rather than in inner mental processes

Behaviorism

A historic school(as well as a modern perspective) that has sought to make psychology an objective science focused only on behavior-to the exclusion of mental processes

Biological View

The psychological perspective that searches for the causes of behavior in the functioning of genes, the brain and nervous system, and the endocrine system

Clinical View

The psychological perspective emphasising mental health and mental illness. Psychodynamic and humanistic psychology are variations on the clinical view.

cognition

Mental processes, such as thinking, memory, sensation, and perception.

Cognitive Neuroscience

An interdisciplinary field emphasising brain activity as information processing; involves cognitive psychology, neurology, biology, computer science, linguistics, and specialist from other fields who are interested in the connection between mental processes and the brain.

Cognitive view

The psychological perspective emphasizes mental processes, such as learning, memory, perception, and thinking, as forms if information processing.

Confirmation Bias

The tendency to attend to evidence that complements and confirms our beliefs or expectations, while ignoring evidence that does not.

Development View

The psychological perspective emphasising changes that occur across the lifespan

Empirical Approach

A study conducted via careful observations and scientifically based research

evolutionary psychology

A relatively new speciality in psychology that sees behavior and mental processes in terms of their genetic adaptations for survival and reproduction.

Expiremental psychologist

Psychologist who do research on basic psychological processes-as contrasted with applied psychologists; also called research psychologist

Functionalism

A historical school of psychology that believed mental processes could best be understood in terms of their adaptive purpose and function

Gestalt Psychology

A historical school of psychology that sought to understand how the brain works by studying perception and perceptual learning, Gestalt psychologist believed that precepts consist of meaningful wholes

Humanistic Psychology

A clinical viewpoint emphasizing human ability, growth, potential, and free will.

Introspection

The process of reporting on one's own conscious mental experiences

NeuroScience

The field devoted to understanding how the brain creates thoughts, feelings, motives, consciousness, memories, and other mental processes

Pseudopsychology

Erroneous assertions or practices set forth as being scientific psychology

psychiatry

A medical specialty dealing with the diagnosis and treatment of mental disorders

Psychoanalysis

An approach to Psychology based on Sigmund Freud's assertions, which emphasize unconscious processes. The term is used to refer broadly both to Freud's psychoanalytic theory and to psychoanalytic treatment method.

psychodynamic psychology

A clinical viewpoint emphasising the understanding of mental disorders in terms of unconscious needs, desires, memories, and conflicts.

Sociocultural View

A psychological perspective emphasizing the importance of social interaction, social learning, and a cultural perspective.

Structuralism

A historical school of psychology devoted to uncovering the basic structures that make up mind and thought. Structuralists sought the "elements" of conscious experience

Trait View

A psychological perspective that views behavior and personality as the products of enduring psychological characteristics

Plato

(nativist/innate, ~400 BC)-character, intelligence, traits

Hippocrates

Greek surgeon, ~400 BC)

Aristotle

(empiricist/environment, ~350 BC)-learning, memory, motivation, perception, emotion, personality

Galen

Roman surgeon, ~150)

Rene Descartes

(French, ~1650)dualism (mind/body), "puppet", reflexes

John Locke

(British, ~1650)-"tabula rasa"

Hermann von Helmholtz

Time of nerves

Charles Darwin

Natural Section

Wilhem Wundt

(instrospection)- University of Leipzig, first class, lab, textbook

Edward Titchener

Structuralism

G. Stanley Hall

(functionalism)- Johns Hopkins University first lab in America; founded the APA

William James

(first comprehensive psychology textbook)

Hemann Ebbinghaus

memory

Mary Calkins

First woman APA President

Sigmund Freud

(personality, psychotherapy - psychanalysis)

Gestaltists

Wetheimer, Koffka, Kohler)

Margret Washburn

First woman with PHD

Edwin Thorndike

Cats/Rats, rewards

Ivan Pavlov

classical conditioning

John Watson

Behaviorism

B.F. Skinner

operant conditioning

Jean Piaget

child development

Noam Chomsky

Language, Critical periods

Abraham Maslow

hierarchy of needs

Carl rodgers

Humanistic

Clinical

Diagnose and treat severe disorders

Counseling

Less severe disorders( Anxiety, Phobias)

School Psychologist

Test administration, Students

Educational

learning, school systems

Industrial Organization

Workplace factors

Experimental

University, Mice, Details

Social

Prejudice, stereotypes, group behavior

developmental

Childhood, geriatric

Psychometric

Test design, statistics

forensic

Military, legal, law-enforcement.

Health/Sports Psych

examine the ways in which behavior and mental processes are related to physical health.