Bio 112 1st Exam

four large biological molecules

carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, fats

carbohydrates

Dietary energy; storage; plant structure

lipids

Long-term energy storage (fats); hormones (steroids), membranes

proteins

Enzymes, structure, storage, contraction, transport, etc.

nucleic acid

Information storage

Large macromolecules in the cell are formed from smaller monomers by the process of ___________ (removal of water).

condensation

\n When studying the four groups of macromolecules (carbohydrates, fats, proteins & nucleic acids), remember to focus on the relationship between \n __________&__ _______.

structure & function

Most macromolecules are _______. \n

polymers

Polymers (carbohydrates, fats, proteins, nucleic acids) are made \n by stringing together many smaller molecules called ________.

monomers

A dehydration reaction (Condensation)

• links two monomers together & \n • removes a molecule of water.

In contrast, Hydrolysis ( Digestion) \n

adds a molecule of water & reverses the dehydration reaction

______sugars = glucose, fructose \n

Simple

_______of sugar = glycogen, starch, cellulose.

Polymers

\n _____sugar molecules in energy drinks

small

____ starch molecules in spaghetti & French fries.

long

In _______, carbohydrates are a primary source of: \n • dietary energy & \n • storage energy

animals

In ______, carbohydrates serve as: \n \*storage energy \n \* building material (strength)

plants

_______ are monomers & the main fuels for cellular work

monosaccharides

cellular respiration

glucose + oxygen → ATP + CO2 + water

________ __are double sugars formed by a dehydration reaction. monomers joined by__ _____ bonds

disaccharides, glycosidic

________________ is made by a commercial process that converts natural glucose in corn syrup to much sweeter frucose

high-fructose corn syrup

high-fructose corn syrup is often used as ____ in the US

sweetner

av american consumes about _____ of sugar per year

45 kg

       •Storage - Glycogen is made up of glucose molecules in C1-4 (linear) & C1-6 (branch) arrangements. Storage in liver & muscles.

      •Complex carbohydrates are like “time release” packets of energy.

**Animals**

         •Storage energy - Starch is made of:Amylose (linear C1-4 arrangements coiled in an  helix & Amylopectin (branched, C1-6). 

        •Strength - Cellulose is made of a linear C1-4 () & C1-4 () arrangement (strength).

        •Cellulose is indigestible in humans & is known as “fiber” or “roughage”.

Plants

Function of ____

* Energy storage
* Cushioning
* Insulation
* Membranes

Fats

a phospholipid consists of

* A glycerol molecule (hydrophilic head) 
* Joined with 3 fatty acid molecules (hydrophobic tail) via a dehydration reaction

If the skeleton of a fatty acid has fewer than the maximum number of hydrogens, it is ___________

unsaturated

* Has the maximum number of hydrogens, it is ___________

saturated

A saturated fat has

* No double bonds
* All three of its fatty acids saturated

Most animal fats

* Have a high proportion of saturated fatty acids
* Can easily stack, tending to be solid at room temp 
* Higher amounts contribute to atherosclerosis, in which lipid- containing plaques build up along the inside walls of blood vessels-cardiovascular problems-strokes, heart attacks 

Hydrogenation

* Adds hydrogen
* Converts unsaturated fats to saturated fats
* Makes liquid fats solid at room temperature 
* Creates trans fat, a type of unsaturated fat that is particularly bad for your health
* From olive oil to margarine (unsaturated to trans fat)

_______ are very different from fats in structure and function

Steroids

The carbon skeleton is bent to form four fused rings on _____

steroids

______vary in the functional groups attached to this set of rings, & these chemical variations affect their function \n

Steroids

Synthetic anabolic steroids

* Are variants of testosterone
* Mimic some testosterone effects
* Can cause serious physical & mental problems
* May be prescribed to treat diseases such as cancer & AIDS
* Are sometimes abused by athletes to enhance performance
* Unfair advantage? “Every athlete uses it”??

___molecules contain more stored energy than carbohydrate molecules

Fat

1 gm of carbohydrate stores _ calories of energy 

4

* 1 gm of fat stores 9 calories of energy

* 9

Excessive Saturated & trans fats –-

increase Light density lipoproteins (LDLs), decrease HDL --- cardiovascular problems

Excessive carbs–-   

diabetes, obesity,

Excess fat - \n

atherosclerosis

All proteins are macromolecules constructed from a common set of \n \~ _____________

20 kinds of amino acids.

Each ___________ consists of a central carbon atom bonded to four \n covalent partners.

amino acid

These attachment groups are common to all amino acids:

• a carboxyl group (-COOH), \n • an amino group (-NH2), & \n • a hydrogen atom. \n • a unique R group (side group)

Cells link amino acids together: \n

• by dehydration reactions, \n • forming peptide bonds, & \n • creating long chains of amino acids called \n polypeptides

Structural proteins- ___________

\n

provide support

Storage proteins- ____________ \n

provide amino acids for growth

\

Contractile proteins-

\n

provide amino acids for growth

Transport proteins-

Hb transport substances

Enzymes- spread chemical reactions

spread chemical reactions

Protein functions are influenced by their ____________

3 ( & 4) dimensional tertiary structure 

* Protein structure:

* there are 3-4 levels of protein structure, the key to protein function is its shape. 

Primary structure:

unique sequence of amino acids arranged in a long chain 

**Secondary structure**

\n

* Affected by pattern of hydrogen bonds between amino acids in a long chain 

**Alpha helix**

Hydrogen bonds join the NH group in one peptide bond & the C=O group nearby.

B pleated sheets

Joining of same - NH & C=O bond but amino acids involved are either on different chains or in segments of same chain that bend back & lie close to each other (e.,g silk)

**Tertiary Structure**

* Dictated by primary & secondary structure.
* Folding leading to 3‑ D shape.  

Interaction between R groups in different parts of chain. \n

(1) Ionic bonds between R groups with + & - charges \n (2) Hydrogen bonds between R groups with + & charges.‑ \n (3) Disulfide bonds \n Covalent bonds linking S of two different cysteine molecules. \n (4) Hydrophobic interactions happens \n When non-polar R groups are pushed to stay close together. \n When polar groups form interactions with one another

Quaternary structure \n

Made up of several polypeptide chains that must fit \n together to form a functional protein.

A _______ shape is sensitive to the surrounding \n environment.

protein’s

An unfavorable change in temperature &/or pH can \n cause denaturation of a _____, in which it unravels & \n loses its shape.

protein

High fevers (above 104F) in humans can cause some \n _______to denature.

proteins

enzymes are protein molecules that act as ________.

catalysts

_______ increase rate of reaction. \n

enzymes

________ Lower energy of activation. \n

enzymes

__________ bind to active site ‑ Lock & Key fit. \n \n

enzymes

___________have 3D structure (shape) of active site is critical to

enzymes

________decrease reaction rate.

Inhibitors

____________:Compounds similar in shape to the Substrate (S). The inhibitor competes with the substrate by binding to the active site on the enzyme, displacing the substrate.

Competitive Inhibition

A change in pH can disrupt the three- \n dimensional structure of an _______.

enzyme

Most _______work best around pH 7. \n

enzymes

* Stomach _______work at 1.5-2 
* Intestinal ______work at pH 8

* enzymes

temperature

Increases rate of reaction. \n Beyond 60oC ‑ Denaturation destruction ‑ \n of 3 D structure of enzyme.‑ \n However, there are enzymes that work at \n very high temperatures e.g. enzymes from \n bacteria that live in hot vents

\
\
______disruptors interfere with the body’s endocrine system & produce adverse developmental, reproductive, neurological, & immune effects in both humans & wildlife.1.Some act as imposters of naturally occurring estrogen. 2 . Increase in cancer risks 3. Changes in reproductive organs & functions. 4. Changes in development & behavior of infants

Endocrine

__________ are associated with: \n • Alzheimer’s disease, \n • Mad cow disease, \n • Parkinson’s disease. \n • Sickle cell anemia \n • Cystic fibrosis

Misfolded proteins

function of DNA & RNA

information storage

\n A ____is a specific stretch of DNA that programs the \n amino acid sequence of a peptide/polypeptide. \n

gene

The chemical code of ___must be translated from “==nucleic== acid language” to “protein language.”

DNA

Nucleic acids are polymers made from monomers called _________.

nucleotides

\n Each nucleotide has three parts: \n \n

1\. a five-carbon sugar, \n 2. a phosphate group, & \n 3. a nitrogen-containing base (A, G, C, T).

_______- found on the outer part of a tree/plant, they are dead tissue. Cellular cell walls. Gave clue that organisms are made of units; cells

Cork cells

**_______- provides enlargement & resolution : light, transmission electron microscope, scanning electron microscope**

\n

**Microscopy**

* _____; enlargement by objective lens and ocular glasses, illumination is light, enlargement 200mm

* Light

___; enlargement by electron beam, lenses are electromagnets, very high resolution 2-4A

TEM

___; electrons do not pass thru specimen, lower resolution than TEM, great depth of focus 

SEM

**Prokaryotic cells- bacteria and archaea**

* Smaller, simpler
* Do not have membrane enclosed organelles

prokaryotic cells

* Smaller, simpler
* Do not have membrane enclosed organelles

**___________cells- protists, plants, fungi, and animals**

**Eukaryotic**

eukaryotic cells

* Contain system of membranous organelles with specialized func- nucleus, endoplasmic reticulum, golgi, lysosomes, mitochondria, and peroxisomes
* Cytoskeleton: microtubules, intermediate filaments, microfilaments 
* More complex (MAIN DIFFERENCE)
* Have organelles

Most common bacteria- _____

e.coli

**___________** has 1. plasma membrane(phospholipid, encloses cytoplasm), 2. cell wall (peptidoglycan, provides rigidity) 3. capsule(polysaccharide, sticky coating), ribosomes, prokaryotic flagellum, nucleoid, ribosomes, pili

\n

**Prokaryotic cell:**

**______cell**: cytoskeleton, ribosomes, centriole, lysosome, plasma membrane, nucleus, mitochondrion, rough ER, golgi apparatus, smooth ER

\n

**Animal**

**_____cell**: cytoskeleton, mitochondrion, nucleus, rough ER, ribosomes, smooth ER, golgi apparatus, plasma membrane, central vacuole, cell wall, chloroplast, channels between cells, golgi apparatus

\n

**Plant**

**___________Fluid Mosaic model of membrane)** : hydrophilic region of protein, hydrophilic head, hydrophobic tail, hydrophobic regions of protein, cytoplasm, proteins embedded 

\n

**Plasma membrane structure(**

**Nucleus**

* Ribosomes, chromatin fiber, nuclear envelope, nucleolus, nuclear pore
* Nucleolus: not an organelle

The ______ is separated from the cytoplasm by a double membrane called the nuclear envelope.

nucleus

Pores in the __________ allow materials to move between the nucleus & cytoplasm, selectively.

nuclear envelope

The _____contains a (one or more) nucleolus where ribosome precursors are assembled 

nucleus

______= not DNA

chromatin