units 1 and 2 ap psych vocab

empiricism

the view that knowledge originates in experience and that science should, therefore, rely on observation and experimentation

structuralism

an early school of psychology that used introspection to explore the elemental structure of the human mind

functionalism

early school of thought promoted by James and influenced by Darwin; explored how mental and behavioral processes function- how they enable the organism to adapt, survive, and flourish

experiment psychology

the study of behavior and thinking using the experimental method

behaviorism

the view that psychology (1) should be an objective science that (2) studies behavior without reference to mental processes. Most research psychologists today agree with (1) but not with (2).

humanistic psychology

historically significant perspective that emphasized the growth potential of healthy people and the individual's potential for personal growth

cognitive psychology

the scientific study of all the mental activities associated with thinking, knowing, remembering, and communicating

psychology

the scientific study of behavior and mental processes

nature-nurture issue

the longstanding controversy over the relative contributions that genes and experience make to the development of psychological traits and behaviors. Today's science sees traits and behaviors arising from the interaction of nature and nurture

natural selection

a process in which individuals that have certain inherited traits tend to survive and reproduce at higher rates than other individuals because of those traits.

biopsychosocial approach

an integrated approach that incorporates biological, psychological, and social-cultural levels of analysis

behavioral psychology

the scientific study of observable behavior, and its explanation by principles of learning

biological psychology

a branch of psychology concerned with the links between biology and behavior

evolutionary psychology

the study of the evolution of behavior and the mind, using principles of natural selection

psychodynamic psychology

a branch of psychology that studies how unconscious drives and conflicts influence behavior, and uses that information to treat people with psychological disorders

social-cultural psychology

the study of how situations and cultures affect our behavior and thinking

psychometrics

the scientific study of the measurement of human abilities, attitudes, and traits

basic research

pure science that aims to increase the scientific knowledge base

developmental psychology

a branch of psychology that studies physical, cognitive, and social change throughout the life span

education psychology

the study of how psychological processes affect and can enhance teaching and learning

social psycholgy

the scientific study of how we think about, influence, and relate to one another

applied research

scientific study that aims to solve practical problems

industrial-organizational (I/O) psychology

the application of psychological concepts and methods to optimizing human behavior in workplaces

human factors psychology

a branch of psychology that explores how people and machines interact and how machines and physical environments can be made safe and easy to use

counseling psychology

a branch of psychology that assists people with problems in living (often related to school, work, or marriage) and in achieving greater well-being

clinical psychology

a branch of psychology that studies, assesses, and treats people with psychological disorders

psychiatry

a branch of medicine dealing with psychological disorders; practiced by physicians who sometimes provide medical (for example, drug) treatments as well as psychological therapy

community psychology

a branch of psychology that studies how people interact with their social environments and how social institutions affect individuals and groups

positive psychology

the scientific study of optimal human functioning; aims to discover and promote strengths and virtues that enable individuals and communities to thrive

hindsight bias

the tendency to believe, after learning an outcome, that one would have foreseen it

critical thinking

thinking that does not blindly accept arguments and conclusions. Rather, it examines assumptions, discerns hidden values, evaluates evidence, and assesses conclusions.

theory

an explanation using an integrated set of principles that organizes observations and predicts behaviors or events

hypothesis

a supposition or proposed explanation made on the basis of limited evidence as a starting point for further investigation.

operational definition

a statement of the procedures used to define research variables for replication of the experiment

personality psychology

the study of an individual's characteristic pattern of thinking, feeling, and acting

replications

repeating a study, often with different subject populations or in different settings

case study

an observation technique in which one person is studied in depth in the hope of revealing universal principles

naturalistic observation

observing and recording behavior in naturally occurring situations without trying to manipulate and control the situation

survey

a technique for ascertaining the self-reported attitudes or behaviors of a particular group, usually by questioning a representative, random sample of the group

sampling bias

a flawed sampling process that produces an unrepresentative sample

population

group of individuals of the same species that live in the same area

random sample

a sample that fairly represents a population because each member has an equal chance of inclusion

correlation

a mutual relationship or connection between two or more things

correlation coefficient

a statistical index of the relationship between two things (from -1 to +1)

scatterplot

a graphed cluster of dots, each of which represents the values of two variables

illusory correlation

the perception of a relationship where none exists

experiment

a scientific procedure undertaken to make a discovery, test a hypothesis, or demonstrate a known fact.

experimental group

the group in an experiment that receives the variable being tested

control group

the group that does not receive the experimental treatment.

random assignment

assigning participants to experimental and control conditions by chance, thus minimizing preexisting differences between those assigned to the different groups

double-blind procedure

an experimental procedure in which both the research participants and the research staff are ignorant (blind) about whether the research participants have received the treatment or a placebo. Commonly used in drug-evaluation studies.

placebo effect

experimental results caused by expectations alone; any effect on behavior caused by the administration of an inert substance or condition, which the recipient assumes is an active agent.

independent variable

variable that is manipulated

confounding variable

a factor other than the independent variable that might produce an effect in an experiment

dependent variable

a variable (often denoted by y ) whose value depends on that of another.

validity

the extent to which a test measures or predicts what it is supposed to

descriptive statistics

numerical data used to measure and describe characteristics of groups. Includes measures of central tendency and measures of variation.

mode

the most frequently occurring score(s) in a distribution

median

the middle score in a distribution; half the scores are above it and half are below it

mean

average

skewed distribution

a representation of scores that lack symmetry around their average value

range

the difference between the highest and lowest scores in a distribution

standard deviation

a computed measure of how much scores vary around the mean score

normal curve

the symmetrical bell-shaped curve that describes the distribution of many physical and psychological attributes. Most scores fall near the average, and fewer and fewer scores lie near the extremes.

inferential statistics

numerical data that allow one to generalize- to infer from sample data the probability of something being true of a population

statistical significance

a statistical statement of how likely it is that an obtained result occurred by chance

culture

the enduring behaviors, ideas, attitudes, values, and traditions shared by a group of people and transmitted from one generation to the next

informed consent

an ethical principle that research participants be told enough to enable them to choose whether they wish to participate

debriefing

the post-experimental explanation of a study, including its purpose and any deceptions, to its participants

behavior genetics

the study of the relative power and limits of genetic and environmental influences on behavior

environment

the surroundings or conditions in which a person, animal, or plant lives or operates.

chromosomes

threadlike structures made of DNA molecules that contain the genes

dna

a complex molecule containing the genetic information that makes up the chromosomes.

genes

the biochemical units of heredity that make up the chromosomes; a segment of DNA capable of synthesizing a protein

genome

the complete instructions for making an organism, consisting of all the genetic material in that organism's chromosomes

identical twins

twins who develop from a single fertilized egg that splits in two, creating two genetically identical organisms

fraternal twins

twins who develop from separate fertilized eggs. They are genetically no closer than brothers and sisters, but they share a fetal environment.

molecular genetics

the subfield of biology that studies the molecular structure and function of genes

heritability

the ability of a trait to be passed down from one generation to the next

interaction

the interplay that occurs when the effect of one factor (such as environment) depends on another factor (such as heredity)

epigenetics

the study of environmental influences on gene expression that occur without a DNA change

mutation

a random error in gene replication that leads to a change

nueron

a nerve cell; the basic building block of the nervous system

dendrites

a neuron's bushy, branching extensions that receive messages and conduct impulses toward the cell body

axon

the extension of a neuron, ending in branching terminal fibers, through which messages pass to other neurons or to muscles or glands

myelin sheath

a layer of fatty tissue segmentally encasing the fibers of many neurons; enables vastly greater transmission speed of neural impulses as the impulse hops from one node to the next.

action potential

a neural impulse; a brief electrical charge that travels down an axon

refractory period

a period of inactivity after a neuron has fired

threshold

the level of stimulation required to trigger a neural impulse

all-or-none response

a neuron's reaction of either firing (with a full-strength response) or not firing.

synapse

the junction between the axon tip of the sending neuron and the dendrite or cell body of the receiving neuron

neurotransmitters

chemical messengers that cross the synaptic gaps between neurons

reuptake

a neurotransmitter's reabsorption by the sending neuron

endorphins

"morphine within"--natural, opiatelike neurotransmitters linked to pain control and to pleasure.

agonist

a molecule that, by binding to a receptor site, stimulates a response

antagonist

blocks neurotransmitter

nervous system

the body's speedy, electrochemical communication network, consisting of all the nerve cells of the peripheral and central nervous systems

peripheral nervous system

the sensory and motor neurons that connect the central nervous system to the rest of the body

nerves

bundled axons that form neural "cables" connecting the central nervous system with muscles, glands, and sense organs

sensory neurons

neurons that carry incoming information from the sensory receptors to the brain and spinal cord