P1

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* Environment

The main focus of cytology is the interaction of certain cells to what?

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* Cell membrane

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The activation of a protein binding site in a cell wall results in a change of which organelle?

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Cisterns

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These are folds common with organelles with only 1 layer of sub membrane

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* Mitochondria

A cell that has a very high of metabolic activity will most likely have this organelle in high number

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* Matrix

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This is commonly considered part of the cytosol, except:

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Homeostasis

The functions of organs and systemic physiology is best described as 

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* Cytoskeleton

A uniquely shaped cell gets to keep its shape due to this organelle?

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* Vacuoles

This organelle is very important in pathology since it is a region of viral replication and storage?

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* NOA (none of the above)

this is the process where amino acids in the ribosome are converted into nucleotide that was copied from the ribosomes

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* Acidic

To function properly the internal ph of a lysosomes would most likely fall under

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* Both side 

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The bi lipid layer of the plasma membrane is said repel water on this side?

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* Nucleus

This is best described as a dark colored mass commonly found in the center of the cell

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* Phosphorus

This element is known to give hydrophilic property of the cell membrane?

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* Concentration gradient

This will dictate the movement and diffusion of solutes in a solution?

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* Polar: Hydrophilic

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The heads of the phospholipids have been known to contain this property?

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* Centrioles

These are self replicating organelles that lie in the right angles of each other?

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* Hydrolysis

This best describes the chemical process occurring in the lysosomes?

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* Endoplasmic reticulum

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This organelle is used as a site of protein synthesis used for the repair of the cell membrane

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Carrier

This is best describes as a form of membrane permeability using changing shape of proteins without the need for energy?

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Carbs: Golgi

Lipoglycans and Aminoglycans have a unique molecules to them and is inserted in what organelle

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* RIbosomes

The smooth endoplasmic reticulum is due to absence of which organelle?

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Complimentary strand

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During the cell division (mitotic). This is partnered with the genetic material from the parent cells?

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* TRNA 

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This type of RNA is responsible for gathering the all the materials needed for cellular synthesis

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* cholesterol 

This molecule is is used to reduce and protect the cell by reducing and stabilizing its plasma membrane

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* Membrane channels

This protein derived substance has been known to alter the permeability of the cell membrane by incorporating the entry of non polar substance

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Gap junction

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This connection allows the exchange of electrolytes between 2 adjacent cells?

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* Cadherins

This type of protein is mostly used for physical connection between 2 cells?

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* Passive Diffusion

This process is common to substances that can freely pass through the cell membrane but is still governed by the concentration gradient

* Passive Diffusion

metabolic rate

The rate at which it converts chemical energy into heat and external work 

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* Physical activity  
* Temperature of the environment  

 

Two factors that typically Affect metabolic rate  

Standard measure of metabolic rate that applies to homeotherms 

Basal Metabolic Rate (BMR)

FATS

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is greatest storage of energy in animals  

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feedlot

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ideal fattening of animal meat  

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CORN 

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great source of energy  

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STARCH 

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storage of energy of plants 

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SUGAR

carrier of energy  

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.Panting 

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most effective wat to release heat  

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.Shivering 

Most effective way to generate heat  

**Standard Metabolic Rate (SMR)** 

WHAT METABOLIC RATE APPLIES TO ECTOTHERMS

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1. Fasting  
2. Resting 

.SMR is the rate of metabolic rate when it is: 

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.**METABOLISM - SIZE RELATION**  

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The allometric relation between metabolic rate and body weight suggest that different sizes, but related, species are likely to differ in how well their cells and tissues are endowed with mitochondria and other components to the aerobic catabolic apparatus.  

.Heat  

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Is an inevitable by-product of the use of high-grade, chemical-bond energy to create and main the vital organization of the living organism.  

CATABOLISM  

.The breakdown of ATP to produce ATP is called

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* Aerobic - requires O2 
* Anaerobic - still function without O2  

.Two catabolic pathways is: 

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* Glycolysis  
* Krebs Cycle  
* Electron Transport 
* Oxidative Phosphorylation  

**AEROBIC CATABOLIC PATHWAY** 

Consist of WHAT FOUR major sets of reaction  

gluconeogenesis 

IF LIVER HAS NO GLUCOSE IT WILL USE WHAT PROCESS?

GLYCOLYSIS

IT IS The series of enzymatically catalyzed reaction  

  

pyruvic acid

in glycolysis what does glucose converts to?

cytosol

where does glycolysis happen?

phosphorylation

where the process in glycolysis that requires 2 ATP to convert 2 pyruvate  

acetyl Coenzyme-A (Acetyl-CoA) 

what enzyme is release during krebs cycle?

kreb’s cycle

Important process in producing high-energy electron carriers, such as NADH and FADH2 which are then used in the Electron Transport Chain 

in mitochondria

where does ELECTRON TRANSPORT & OXIDATIVE PHOSPHORYLATION  happens

oxygen

final electron acceptor 

ative Phosphorylation lies in the disposition of the reduced NADH2 and FADH2 molecules  

The reason why O2 is essential in Electron Transport and Oxidative Phosphorylation

ELECTRON TRANSPORT & OXIDATIVE PHOSPHORYLATION

the process where o2 is needed

This produce 32 ATP  

how many atp is produced in final process of aerobic cathabolic pathway?

anaerobic glycolysis.  

the entire sequence of reaction that converts glucose to lactic acid is called

oxygen

anaerobic respiration happens in the body if there not enough?

Pyruvic acid

__________ is the final electron acceptor sa anaerobic cell.  

UNIPOLAR !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!

BIPOLAR  !!!!!!!!!!!!!!

MULTIPOLAR!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!

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CLASSIFICATION OF NEURONS

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ear

What does it mean when we say vestibular organ?

pacinian corpuscle.

Meissner’s corpuscle.

skin receptors

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pacinian corpuscle

*PAIN* receptor in skin

Meissner’s corpuscle

*PRESSURE* receptor in skin

Schwann cells

The only neuroglia in the PNS

.**MEMBRANE POTENTIAL** 

The ability of cell membranes to produce and conduct electrical impulses  

from soma to axon terminal  

Synaptic cleft  

 

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The space between neurons at a nerve synapse across which a nerve impulse is transmitted by a neurotransmitter   

 

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 Neurotransmitters 

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Signaling molecules secreted by a neuron to affect another cell across the synapse.  

 SYNAPSE 

 

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TWO NEURONS MEET IN THE ?????????

 

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.RESTING MEMBRANE POTENTIAL (RMP) 

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\-The potential to create impulse 

\-ions here are asymmetric 

\- occurs when theres imbalance

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.GRADED POTENTIAL  

.GRADED POTENTIAL  

\-small incremental changes in the cell membrane (slowly but consistent)  

\- changes in voltage 

axodendritic connection  

When the axons terminals touch another dendrites its called ?

 axosomatic connection  

When an axon touch the body of an neuron its called?

Axon hillock 

is the point of connection of the soma of the neuron and body of the axon. TRIGGER zone  

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DEPOLORIZATION 

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-the sudden of spike or increase on the voltage 

\-will trigger opening of the sodium channels 

Synaptic vesicle

carrier of impulse  

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* Must reach the threshold; found in axon hillock and also called trigger zone.  
* Must pass the 50% 

Two things will trigger ACTION POTENTIAL

REFRACTORY PERIOD 

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Capability of the membrane to have 2nd stimulis  

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* Absolute - the whole sodium gates are open  

There is no asymmetry  
* Relative - First impulse is weaker, once the action potential is weaker, low voltage dili ma open tanan gates so there is chance na 2nd impulse mo occur which is stronger.  

REFRACTORY PERIOD  2 TYPES EXPLAIN EACH

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NODE OF RANVIER

\-gaps in myelin  

\-Without THIS the impulse become weaker 

\-Act as gas station  

\-Their is a high sodium-potassium pumps 

Oligodendrocytes

kung dili siya kaabot ug 1um and schwann cells kay kini iya gam on 

Blood CSF Barrier

barrier para to prevent unwanted substance from entering the brain  

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 oligodendrocytes, ependymal cells, microglia and astrocytes

Neuroglia sa CNS:

NEUROGLIA  

  

* Supporting cells  
* Have the capacity to divide  
* Example schwann cells 

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NITRIC OXIDE

MICROGLIA RELEASED WHAT TO prevent viral replication

INFARCT

 Permanent failure of blood supply/failed for more than 15 minutes

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ISCHEMIA

lesser version of infarct? temporary failure

CHOROID PLEXUS

If the ependymal cell creates CSF what do you call the organ that creates CSF?

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Spinal and cavity of the…

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Where does the CSF stay?

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Hydrocephalus (very common in young animals)

If there’s an over production of CSF u will suffer a condition called?

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* Anemia  
* Polycythemia 

.Two abnormalities in blood .

Spleen

Removal of RBC occurs in Macrophages in what organ?

PCV (Packed Cell Volume) 

are used to measure RBC mass.  

. MCH (Mean Corpuscular Hgb) 

To measure RBC you have to get the weight  

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* the average Hgb in a single cell, how much Hgb to transport oxygen.  

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MCHC (Mean Corpuscular Hgb Concentration) 

The amount of Hgb in % in a single RBC. The hemoglobin containing Iron gives its color

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* Hypochromic
* Normochromic .

_________less Iron/ Less color/ Pale 

________ - normal color  

.RDW (Red Cell Distribution Width)

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\- RBC size difference  

\-The size difference if we will have Iron deficiency or B12 deficiency  

TIBC ( Total Iron Binding Capacity) 

..means how many proteins available. Even if we have Iron available but we don’t have the carrier protein then we wont able to transport oxygen to the tissues. 

ferritin

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the concentration in the blood that is proportional  to the stored iron.