Anatomy & Physiology 12 - Biochemistry - Wolf

biology

a type of chemical bond where electrons are shared equally between atoms, resulting in a balanced distribution of charges

nonpolar covalent bond

type of chemical bond where electrons are shared unequally between atoms, resulting in a partial positive charge on one atom and a partial negative charge on the other

polar covalent bond

weak electrostatic attraction between the positively charged hydrogen atom in one molecule, and the negatively charged atom in another molecule

hydrogen bond

a polar molecule, that clings to other water molecules through hydrogen-bonds (H2O)

water

- The many hydrogen bonds that link water molecules help water absorb heat without a great change in temperature.
- Because the temperature of water rises and falls slowly, organisms are better able to maintain their normal internal temperatures and are protected from rapid temperature changes

water has a high heat capacity

the hydrogen bonds must be broken before the water comes to a boil and reaches a state of vaperation

water has a high heat of vaporization

Due to its polarity, water facilitates chemical reactions, inside and outside living organisms. It dissolves a great number of substances

Water is a great solvent

substance dissolved in a solution

Solutes

molecules that can attract water

Hydrophilic

molecules that are not attracted to water

Hydrophobic

tendency of water molecules to cling together (H bonding)

water cohesion

water molecules stick to other kinds of substances (H bonding)

water adhesion

Water molecules at the surface cling more tightly to each other than to the air above, mainly due to hydrogen bonding

water has a high surface tension

- Water has a high heat capacity
- Water has a high heat of vaporization
- Water molecules are cohesive and adhesive
- Water is a great solvent
- Water has a high surface tension

Properties of water

substances that release hydrogen ions (H+)

Acid

substances that take up hydrogen ions (H+) or release hydroxide ion (OH-)

Base

substance that keeps pH within normal limits by altering concentrations of (OH-) and (H+)

Buffer

monosaccharide (monomer)

Carbohydrate (polymer)

Fatty acids (monomer)

Lipid (polymer)

amino acid (monomer)

Protein (polymer)

nucleotide (monomer)

Nucleic acid (polymer)

occurs when monomers bond during a dehydration reaction (removal of H2O)

dehydration synthesis

occurs when the monomers in a polymer separate during a hydrolysis reactions (addition of H2O)

hydrolysis reaction

A three dimensional polymer made of monomers of amino acids.

Protein

- Enzymes
- Hormones
- Structural Materials
- Carries in a cell membrane
- Hair & Nails
- Neurotransmitters
- Muscles
- Immune System Antibodies
- Hemoglobin
- Plasma Proteins

Protein forms

building blocks of proteins, monomers of proteins

Amino acids

20

How many different amino acids are there?

because of the side chains, known as R-groups

How do amino acids differ from one another?

an organic compound made of amino acids

Dipeptide

an unbranched chain of amino acids taste are linked together by peptide bonds

Polypeptide

The linear sequence of amino acids joined by peptide bonds

Primary structure

Hydrogen bonding between amino acids causes the polypeptide to form an alpha helix or a beta pleated sheet

Secondary structure

Covalent or hydrogen cross bonding between R groups causes the polypeptide to fold and twist, giving it a globular shape

Tertiary structure

Consists of two or more tertiary proteins linked together through hydrogen bonds

Quaternary structure

If damaged or out of shape, a protein will no longer be able to perform its functions

How does a protein’s shape affect how it works?

when the bonding between R-groups is disturbed and the normal shape is lost

Denaturation

1. pH

2. temperature

3. heavy metals; lead and mercury

Name the three causes of denaturation

heartburn or acid reflux - stomach acid HCL enters esophagus and damages cells

A result of denaturation by change in pH

fever or heat stroke - enzymes destroyed if body temp too high for metabolic enzymes

A result of denaturation by temperature change

boiling an egg coagulation the egg white (protein) and cannot return to its normal state

A result of denaturation through heavy metals

fatty, organic compounds insoluble in water (nonpolar, hydrophobic)

Lipids

1. Neutral Fats (Triglyceride)

2. Soaps

3. Phospholipids

4. Steroids

Name the four main types of lipids

3 fatty acids + 1 glycerol

Neutral Fats (Triglyceride) formula

Emulsification is the process of dispersing one liquid into another immiscible liquid, forming an emulsion.

Emulsification

The hydrophilic (water-loving) head of the soap molecule interacts with water, while the hydrophobic (water-repelling) tail interacts with lipids.

How does emulsification work?

CHg(CH2)8COOH

Condensed form of a Triglyceride

— have single bonds between carbons

— have a lot of hydrogen atoms

— animal source

— unhealthy, must be eaten in moderation

Characteristics of a saturated fatty acid

— have double bonds between carbons

— have less hydrogen atoms

— plan source

— healthier to eat

Characteristics of an unsaturated fatty acid

a class of lipids whose molecule has a hydrophilic "head" containing a phosphate group and two hydrophobic "tails" derived from fatty acids

Phospholipid

2 Fatty acids + 1 Phosphate + 1 Glycerol

Phospholipid formula

— these structures are unique because they contain a charge

— results in phospholipid molecule behaving as if it has two regions

— the main structural component of the cell membranes, prevents the accumulation of fats in the liver

Characteristics of a phospholipid

A polymer is a large molecule composed of repeating subunits called monomers.

Polymers

A monomer is a molecule that can join together with other monomers to form a polymer through a chemical reaction called polymerization. It is the basic building block of a polymer.

Monomer

pH is a measure of the acidity or alkalinity of a solution. It indicates the concentration of hydrogen ions (H+) in a solution. The pH scale ranges from 0 to 14, with 7 being neutral. Solutions with a pH less than 7 are acidic, while those with a pH greater than 7 are alkaline or basic. The lower the pH value, the more acidic the solution, and the higher the pH value, the more alkaline the solution.

pH

An R group, also known as a side chain, is a variable group in organic chemistry that defines the specific properties and characteristics of an organic compound.

R group

Peptide bonds

What holds amino acids together?

When there are many amino acids linked together

Polypeptide

Electronegativity is a measure of an atom's ability to attract electrons towards itself in a chemical bond. Electronegativity plays a crucial role in determining the polarity of chemical bonds and the distribution of electrons in molecules.

Electronegativity

Study of properties, structure, reactions, and compositions of compounds containg Carbon

Organic chemistry

A peptide bond is a covalent bond formed between the carboxyl group of one amino acid and the amino group of another amino acid. This bond is responsible for linking amino acids together to form proteins. The resulting structure is a polypeptide chain, with the amino acid sequence determined by the genetic code.

Describe a peptide bond

Dehydration synthesis is when monosaccharides join together to form larger carbohydrates by removing a water molecule. Hydrolytic reactions break down larger carbohydrates into smaller units by adding a water molecule.

Dehydration synthesis and Hydrolytic reactions: how do they connect to Carbohydrates?

Dehydration reactions link amino acids together to form peptide bonds, resulting in the formation of proteins. Hydrolytic reactions break down proteins by adding water molecules to break the peptide bonds.

Dehydration synthesis and Hydrolytic reactions: how do they connect to Proteins?

Dehydration synthesis is the process by which lipids are formed through the removal of water molecules, resulting in the bonding of smaller lipid molecules. Hydrolytic reactions break down lipids by adding water molecules, which breaks the bonds between lipid molecules.

Dehydration synthesis and Hydrolytic reactions: how do they connect to Lipids?

Dehydration synthesis is the formation of a covalent bond between nucleotides in nucleic acids, resulting in the synthesis of DNA or RNA strands. Hydrolytic reactions break down nucleic acids by adding a water molecule, resulting in the separation of nucleotides.

Dehydration synthesis and Hydrolytic reactions: how do they connect to Nucleic Acids?

A monomer is a molecule that can join together with other monomers to form a polymer through a chemical reaction called polymerization. It is the basic building block of a polymer.

Monomer

1) Cholesterol

2) Testosterone

3) Oestrogen

4) Cortisol

5) Progesterone

Provide five examples of a steroid

Organic compounds composed of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen in a 1:2:1 ratio

Carbohydrates

They serve as a primary source of energy and have various structural and functional roles in living organisms

Carbohydrates: function

— Two Hydrogens for every Oxygen

— The hydrates of carbon

— “The Sugars”

— Ring shaped

Characteristics of Carbohydrates

A pentose is a type of monosaccharide with five carbon atoms in its structure.

Pentose

Pentose sugars (e.g., ribose and deoxyribose) are essential in biology. Ribose is found in RNA, contributing to its structure and function. Deoxyribose is present in DNA, ensuring stability and facilitating the storage and transmission of genetic information. Therefore, pentose sugars primarily participate in nucleic acids and genetic processes.

Pentose: function

A hexose is a type of monosaccharide with six carbon atoms in its structure.

Hexose

Hexoses include important sugars like glucose, fructose, and galactose, which are major energy sources and building blocks for more complex carbohydrates.

Hexose: function

A hexose monosaccharide and is often referred to as blood sugar. It is a primary source of energy for cells.

Glucose

Glucose is used for energy production through cellular respiration and is essential for the proper functioning of the body.

Glucose: function

Fructose is a simple sugar, also known as a monosaccharide, that is naturally found in fruits, honey, and some vegetables.

Fructose

A natural sweetener and a source of energy.

Fructose: function

Hexose monosaccharide, often found in milk and dairy products.

Galactose

Plays a role in lactose, a disaccharide sugar found in milk.

Galactose: function

A monosaccharide, known as a simple sugar, is the simplest carbohydrate. It cannot be further hydrolyzed into smaller sugars.

Monosaccharide

Glucose, Fructose, Galactose, Pentose, Hexose

Monosaccharide: examples

1. Energy Source

2. Cellular Respiration

3. Structure

4. Cell Communication

Monosaccharide: functions

Monosaccharides are vital sources of quick energy for cells. They can be readily converted into ATP, the primary energy currency of cells, through cellular respiration.

Monosaccharide functions: Energy Source

Glucose, in particular, is a key substrate for cellular respiration, a process that generates ATP to power various cellular functions.

Monosaccharide functions: Cellular Respiration

Some monosaccharides, like ribose and deoxyribose, are crucial structural components of nucleic acids (RNA and DNA), which contain the genetic information in cells.

Monosaccharide functions: Structure

Monosaccharides can be part of glycoproteins and glycolipids on the cell surface, playing a role in immune responses and cell adhesion.

Monosaccharide functions: Cell Communication

A carbohydrate composed of two monosaccharide molecules linked together during a dehydration reaction

Disaccharide

Sucrose, lactose, and maltose

Disaccharide: examples

1. Energy Source

2. Transport of Sugars

3. Milk Production

4. Food Sweetening

Disaccharide: functions

Disaccharides, such as sucrose, lactose, and maltose, are broken down into their constituent monosaccharides during digestion.

Disaccharide functions: Energy Source

They play a crucial role in the transport of sugars within living organisms. For example, sucrose in sap serves as a way to transport glucose and fructose from leaves, where they are produced through photosynthesis, to other parts of the plant for growth and energy storage.

Disaccharide functions: Transport of Sugars

Lactose, a disaccharide composed of glucose and galactose, is the primary carbohydrate found in mammalian milk.

Disaccharide functions: Milk Production

Disaccharides like sucrose are commonly used to sweeten foods and beverages.

Disaccharide functions: Food Sweetening

Many monosaccharides joined together

ie) the polymers of a glucose

Polysaccharide

Cellulose, starch, glycogen, and chitin

Polysaccharide: examples

1. Structural Support

   — Cellulose

2. Energy Storage

   — Glycogen

   — Starch

Polysaccharide: functions

Cellulose: A prominent structural polysaccharide found in the cell walls of plant cells. It forms a rigid, fibrous network that provides strength and rigidity to plant tissues. Cellulose gives plant cells their shape and prevents them from bursting due to the internal turgor pressure. For our diet, cellulose is a fibre; we cannot digest the bonding; we lack the enzymes to do so.

Polysaccharide functions: Structural Support

Glycogen: The primary storage polysaccharide in animals, including humans. It is stored in the liver and muscles and serves as a readily accessible source of energy. When energy is needed, glycogen can be quickly broken down into glucose to fuel cellular processes.

Starch: The equivalent storage polysaccharide in plants. It is found in plant cells, particularly in structures like roots, tubers, and seeds. Starch consists of two forms: amylose (unbranched) and amylopectin (branched). Starch serves as an energy reserve for the plant and can be hydrolyzed into glucose when energy demands are high.

Polysaccharide functions: Energy Source

Essential biological macromolecules that carry genetic information and play a critical role in various cellular processes.

Nucleic Acid

polymer made of nucleotide monomers

DNA (Deoxyribonucleic Acid)