exam 2

two identical diploid daughter cells

what is the outcome of mitosis?

four haploid gametes (genetically unique)

what is the outcome of meiosis?

two genetically identical cells (circular DNA)

what is the outcome of binary fission?

diploid cells contain two pairs of chromosomes while haploid cells contain one pair of chromosomes

what is the difference between diploid and haploid?

1. plants

2. animals

3. protists

4. fungi

what are the 4 kingdoms of eukaryotes?

- larger in size and more complex

- reproduce sexually (meiosis) and asexually (mitosis)

- usually contains sterols in plasma membrane

- only has cell wall in plants, fungi, and certain protists

- has a nucleus

- have both 80S and 70S (in mitochondria and chloroplasts) ribosomes

- have multiple linear chromosomes

- have membrane-bound organelles

how does the eukaryotic cell differ from prokaryotes?

- endocytosis: importing things into the cell; includes pinocytosis, phagocytosis, and receptor-mediated endocytosis

- exocytosis: exports things out of the cell

what are the main transport mechanisms used by eukaryotic cells?

- resemble flagella but are shorter and more numerous

- only found in eukaryotes

- practice an oar-like motion to move the cell through fluids

what are the characteristics of eukaryotic cilia?

states that the evolution of eukaryotes is a series of sequential, cell-merging events between an ancient eukaryotic ancestor and certain prokaryotes

what is the endosymbiont theory?

- having their own circular DNA

- having 70S ribosomes (similar to bacteria)

- having double-membrane structures

- having similar size to bacteria

- being able to replicate by a process similar to binary fission

- having genes resembling certain bacterial genes

what characteristics of mitochondria and chloroplasts support the endosymbiont theory?

plants, fungi, and certain protists

which eukaryotic organisms have a cell wall?

- protect cell from stresses

- promote/prevent cell adhesion when appropriate

- assist with cell communication

- assist in proper tissue development

what are the roles of the eukaryotic glycocalyx?

- the glycocalyx in cancer cells is different than that in healthy cells

- the glycocalyx changes in fungi/protists as their infectivity increases

how can the eukaryotic glycocalyx be used as a drug target?

it is not found in prokaryotes making it a good drug target

why is cholesterol significant to eukaryotes?

fungi and protists

what eukaryotes commonly have ergosterol in their membrans?

- cholesterol: because cholesterol is not found in prokaryotes drugs can ensure not to harm human cells that do contain cholesterol when targeting bacteria or viruses

- ergosterol: because ergosterol is not present in the animal membrane it is a good drug target to not harm human cells

why is understanding what eukaryotes have cholesterol and ergosterol significant in drug targeting?

- obtain organic carbon from nutrients

- multicellular

- reproduce sexually and asexually

- largest eukaryotic kingdom

what are the characteristics of the animal kingdom?

- obtain organic carbon through photosynthesis

- multicellular

- contain chloroplasts

- can serve as vehicle for infectious pathogens

what are the characteristics of the plant kingdom?

- rely on extracting carbon from nutrients absorbed from the environment

-mostly multicellular/colonial (yeast are unicellular)

what are the characteristics of the fungi kingdom?

- very diverse

- unicellular or multicellular

- asexual or sexual reproduction

- cell wall or no cell wall

- encompass all the organisms that don't fit into the other four kingdoms

what are the characteristics of the protist kingdom?

- built from tubulin proteins

- have a 9+2 arrangement of microtubules (9 arranged on outside of cylinder and 2 in center)

- enclosed in cell membrane

- continuous with cell cytoplasm

- move in a wavelike motion (whipping back and forth)

how do does eukaryotic flagella differ from prokaryotic flagella?

a collection of fungal pathogens that infect the skin, hair, and nails and break down keratin in these structures

what are dermatophytes?

a disease caused by fungi, usually occurring in immunocompromised individuals and individuals with a disruption of their normal microbiota

what is mycosis?

potentially deadly toxins produced by fungi

what are mycotoxins?

fungal dermatophytes target keratin in skin/nails/hair in order to grow and break down these structures

what is the role of fungal dermatophytes in human infection?

all of them!

which eukaryotic cells have mitochondria?

only plants

which eukaryotic cells have chloroplasts?

- animal-like protists (most often human pathogens)

- mostly unicellular

- lack a cell wall

- reproduce asexually or sexually

what general characteristics do Protozoans share?

- phospholipid bilayer structure (hydrophilic head/hydrophobic tails)

- selectively permeable

- contain sterols (cholosterols and ergosterol) to maintain membrane stability and fluidity

what are the structural and functional features of eukaryotic plasma membranes?

fungi and protists have ergosterol in their plasma membranes while animals do not

how do eukaryotic plasma membranes differ among kingdoms?

- pinocytosis

- phagocytosis

- receptor-mediated endocytosis

what are the types of eukaryotic endocytosis?

the ingestion of fluid (dissolved substances) into a cell by the budding of small vesicles from the cell membrane

what is pinocytosis?

the ingestion of undissolved substances into the cell by engulfing the substances in a phagosome and fusing it with a lysosome

what is phagocytosis?

a process by which cells absorb molecules using receptor proteins on the cell surface

what is receptor-mediated endocytosis?

1. vesicles form, typically by budding from organelles

2. vesicles move towards the plasma membrane and fuse to it

3. vesicle contents either stay in the cell membrane (ex: certain proteins and lipids) or leave the cell (ex: waste, toxins, neurotransmitters)

what occurs during eukaryotic excocytosis?

- transport: move substances where they are needed

- secretory: move materials to surface to be discharged

- lysosomes: break down substances

- peroxisomes: break down fats/amino acids and protect cell from hydrogen peroxide and other toxins

what are the different kind of eukaryotic vesicles?

genetic makeup of an organism

what is genotype?

physiological/physical traits of organism

what is phenotype?

an organism's genotype determines its phenotype

what is the relationship between genotype and phenotype?

made up of sugar (deoxribose or ribose), phosphate, and a nitrogenous base

what are the structural features of DNA and RNA nucleotides?

- purines: double-ring (adenine and guanine)

- pyrimidines: single-ring (cytosine and thymine/uracil)

what is the different between purines and pyrimidines?

the general flow of genetic info goes from DNA to RNA to protein, but RNA can be used as a template for DNA in reverse transcription

what is the central dogma of microbiology?

the synthesis of DNA from an RNA template using reverse transcriptase in conjunction with primers to build DNA that is complementary molecules in a sample

what is reverse transcription?

a form of horizontal gene transfer in which DNA is transferred from a donor bacterium to a recipient bacterium across a pilus

what is conjugation?

in F factor conjugation only the fertility plasmid is transferred to the recipient bacterium, but in Hfr strain conjugation the fertility plasmid is integrated into the donor bacterium's chromosome so both the fertility plasmid and the original DNA are transferred to the recipient bacterium

what is the difference between f factor and Hfr strain conjugation?

facultative genes are made in response to a particular environmental change while constitutive/housekeeping genes are always found on in the cell

what is the difference between facultative and constitutive genes?

1. the original DNA is unwinded

2. a copy is made of the original DNA

3. the new and original DNA rewind

what occurs during DNA replication?