Dev Psych Modules 1-4 Study Guide

Describe human development

Human development refers to the physical, cognitive, and psychosocial development of humans throughout the lifespan.

Physical development

involves growth and changes in the body and brain, the senses, motor skills, and health and wellness

Cognitive development

involves learning, attention, memory, language, thinking, reasoning, and creativity

Psychosocial development

involves emotions, personality, self-esteem, and social relationships

Continuous development

the idea that development is a progressive and cumulative process, gradually improving on existing skills (gradual change)

ex: a child’s physical growth

Discontinuous development

idea that development takes place in unique stages and occurs at specific times or ages

ex: an infant’s ability to demonstrate awareness of object permanence

Nature

the influences of biology and genetics on behavior

Nurture

environmental, social, and cultural influences on behavior

Prenatal Development

Conception occurs and development begins (germinal, embryonic, and fetal periods)

Infancy and Toddlerhood

-Ages 1 ½ - 2

-Walking and talking

-Brain development happens at a remarkable rate, as does physical growth and language development.

-development of attachment styles

-Social and cultural issues center around breastfeeding or formula-feeding, sleeping in cribs or in the bed with parents, toilet training, and whether or not to get vaccinations.

Early Childhood

-Ages 2-6

-amazing growth in vocab

-is gaining a sense of self and greater independence and is beginning to learn the workings of the physical world

-sense of guilt for doing something that brings the disapproval of others

Middle Childhood

-Ages 6-11

-learning and testing new academic skills and assessing one’s abilities and accomplishments by making comparisons between self and others

-The brain reaches its adult size around age seven, but it continues to develop

-Growth rates slow down and children are able to refine their motor skills at this point in life

-social relationships beyond the family (same-sex friendships)

Adolescence

-Ages 12-18

-dramatic physical change (puberty)

-sexual maturation

-cognitive change (love, fear, and freedom)

-have a sense of invincibility

-dating, mixed-sex peer groups, driving, jobs

-strive for a sense of belonging and acceptance

Early Adulthood

-Ages 20-30

-physiological peak but are most at risk for involvement in violent crimes and substance abuse

-Love and work are the primary concerns at this stage of life

Middle Adulthood

-Ages 40-65

-peak of productivity in love and work

-period of gaining expertise in certain fields and being able to understand problems and find solutions with greater efficiency than before

-becoming more realistic about possibilities in life

-may be in the middle of taking care of their children and also taking care of their aging parents

Late Adulthood

-Ages 65+

-“young old” (65-74 years old): possibly still working, married, relatively healthy, and active

-“old old” (75-84 years old): have some health problems and challenges with daily living activities

-“oldest old” (85+ years old): often frail and in need of long term care

Death and Dying

-Factors such as age, religion, and culture play important roles in attitudes and approaches to death and dying

-There are different types of death: physiological, psychological, and social.

-The most common causes of death vary with age, gender, race, culture, and time in history.

Lifespan perspective (Baltes)

Development is lifelong

Development is multidimensional

Development is multidirectional

Development is plastic

Development is contextual

Development is multidisciplinary

Development is lifelong

means that development is not completed in infancy or childhood or at any specific age; it encompasses the entire lifespan, from conception to death.

Development is multidimensional

referring to the fact that a complex interplay of factors influence development across the lifespan, including biological, cognitive, and socioemotional changes

Development is multidirectional

states that the development of a particular domain does not occur in a strictly linear fashion but that development of certain traits can be characterized as having the capacity for both an increase and decrease in efficacy over the course of an individual’s life.

-results in gains and losses throughout life

Development is plastic

denotes intrapersonal variability and focuses heavily on the potentials and limits of the nature of human development

-there is no single pathway that must be taken in an individual’s development across the lifespan

Development is contextual

Development occurs in context and varies from person to person, depending on factors such as a person’s biology, family, school, church, profession, nationality, and ethnicity.

-Three types: normative age-graded influences, normative history-graded influences, and nonnormative influences

Development is Multidisciplinary

a combination of disciplines is necessary to understand development

-Many disciplines are able to contribute important concepts that integrate knowledge, which may ultimately result in the formation of a new and enriched understanding of development across the lifespan. (ex: Psychologists, sociologists, neuroscientists)

Scientific Method

Determining a research question

Reviewing previous studies addressing the topic in question (known as a literature review)

Determining a method of gathering information

Conducting the study

Interpreting the results

Drawing conclusions; stating limitations of the study and suggestions for future research

Making the findings available to others (both to share information and to have the work scrutinized by others)

Correlational research

research that formally tests whether a relationship exists between two or more variables, however, correlation does not imply causation

Descriptive studies

research focused on describing an occurrence

Evaluation research

research designed to assess the effectiveness of policies or programs

Experimental research

research that involves randomly assigning people to different conditions and using hypothesis testing to make inferences about how these conditions affect behavior; the only method that measures cause and effect between variables

Explanatory studies

research that tries to answer the question “why”

Qualitative research

theoretical ideas are “grounded” in the experiences of the participants, who answer open-ended questions

Quantitative research

involves numerical data that are quantified using statistics to understand and report what has been studied

Case study

exploring a single case or situation in great detail. Information may be gathered with the use of observation, interviews, testing, or other methods to uncover as much as possible about a person or situation

Content analysis

involves looking at media such as old texts, pictures, commercials, lyrics or other materials to explore patterns or themes in culture

Observational studies

also called naturalistic observation, involves watching and recording the actions of participants

(Hawthorne effect: individuals tend to change their behavior when they know they are being watched)

Secondary content analysis

archival research, involves analyzing information that has already been collected or examining documents or media to uncover attitudes, practices or preferences

Survey

asking a standard set of questions to a group of subjects

(Validity refers to accuracy and reliability refers to consistency in responses to tests and other measures; great care is taken to ensure the validity and reliability of surveys.)

Correlational research

research design with the goal of identifying patterns of relationships, but not cause and effect

Cross-sectional research

used to examine behavior in participants of different ages who are tested at the same point in time; may confound age and cohort differences

Longitudinal research

studying a group of people who may be of the same age and background (cohort), and measuring them repeatedly over a long period of time; may confound age and time of measurement effects

Sequential research design

combines aspects of cross-sectional and longitudinal designs, but also adding new cohorts at different times of measurement; allows for analyses to consider effects of age, cohort, time of measurement, and socio-historical change

Describe challenges associated with conducting research in lifespan development

-Ethical concerns (Institutional Review Boards (IRBs): a panel of experts who review research proposals for any research to be conducted in association with the institution (for example, a university)

-Recruitment

-Attrition: reduction in the number of research participants as some drop out over time

Trust vs. Mistrust (Hope) - Erikson

-Ages 0–1

-Trust (or mistrust) that basic needs, such as nourishment and affection, will be met

Autonomy vs. Shame (Will) - Erikson

-Ages 1–3

-Sense of independence in many tasks develops

Initiative vs. Guilt (Purpose) - Erikson

-Ages 3–6

-Take initiative on some activities, may develop guilt when success not met or boundaries overstepped

Industry vs. Inferiority (Competence) - Erikson

-Ages 7–11

-Develop self-confidence in abilities when competent or sense of inferiority when not

Identity vs. Role Confusion (Fidelity) - Erikson

-Ages 12–18

-Experiment with and develop identity and roles

Intimacy vs. Isolation (Love) - Erikson

-Ages 19–39

-Establish intimacy and relationships with others

Generativity vs. Stagnation (Care) - Erikson

-Ages 40–64

-Contribute to society and be part of a family

Integrity vs. Despair (Wisdom) - Erikson

-Ages 65+

-Assess and make sense of life and meaning of contributions

Classical conditioning

a type of learning in which an organism responds in a particular way to a neutral stimulus that normally does not bring about that type of response

Operant conditioning

a form of learning in which a voluntary response is strengthened or weakened by its association with positive or negative consequences

(law of effect: behavior that is followed by consequences satisfying to the organism will be repeated and behaviors that are followed by unpleasant consequences will be discouraged)

Social-cognitive learning theory

learning by observing the behavior of another person, called a model

Piaget’s theory of cognitive development

a description of cognitive development as four distinct stages in children: sensorimotor, preoperational, concrete, and formal

Sensorimotor (Stage 1)

-Age 0-2 years

-World experienced through senses and actions

-Object permanence, stranger anxiety

Preoperational (Stage 2)

-Age 2-7 years

-Use words and images to represent things but lack logical reasoning

-Pretend play, egocentrism, language development, cannot perform mental operations, lack conservation

Concrete operational (Stage 3)

-Age 7-11 years

-Understand concrete events and logical analogies; perform arithmetical operations

-Can perform mental operations for actual events

-Conversation, mathematical transformations

Formal operational (Stage 4)

-Age 11+ years

-Utilize abstract reasoning and hypothetical thinking

-Abstract logic, moral reasoning

Information-processing approach

an alternative to Piagetian approaches, a model that seeks to identify the ways individuals take in, use, and store information

Unconditional Positive Regard (Rogers)

-is an environment that is free of preconceived notions of value

-“As persons are accepted and prized, they tend to develop a more caring attitude towards themselves”

-(unconditional love)

The Good Life (Rogers)

1. A growing openness to experience–they move away from defensiveness.

2. An increasingly existential lifestyle–living each moment fully, rather than distorting the moment to fit personality or self-concept.

3. Increasing organismic trust–they trust their own judgment and their ability to choose behavior that is appropriate for each moment.

4. Freedom of choice–they are not restricted by incongruence and are able to make a wide range of choices more fluently. They believe that they play a role in determining their own behavior and so feel responsible for their own behavior.

5. Higher levels of creativity–they will be more creative in the way they adapt to their own circumstances without feeling a need to conform.

6. Reliability and constructiveness–they can be trusted to act constructively. Even aggressive needs will be matched and balanced by intrinsic goodness in congruent individuals.

7. A rich full life–they will experience joy and pain, love and heartbreak, fear and courage more intensely.

Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs

Sociocultural theory

Vygotsky’s theory that emphasizes how cognitive development proceeds as a result of social interactions between members of a culture

Ecological systems theory

Urie Bronfenbrenner’s theory stressing the importance of studying a child in the context of multiple environments, organized into five levels of external influence: microsystem, mesosystem, exosystem, macrosystem, and chronosystem

Microsystem

immediate surrounds including those who have direct, significant contact with the person, such as parents or siblings

Mesosystem

larger organizational structures such as school, the family, or religion

Exosystem

the larger contexts of the community, including the values, history, and economy

Macrosystem

cultural elements such as global economic conditions, war, technological trends, values, philosophies, and a society’s responses to the global community which impact a community

Chronosystem

the environmental events and transitions that occur throughout a child’s life, including any socio-historical events

Evolutionary perspective

This perspective seeks to identify behavior that is the result of our genetic inheritance from our ancestors

(ethology: examines the ways in which our biological makeup influences our behavior)

Evolutionary psychology

a field of psychology that focuses on how universal patterns of behavior and cognitive processes have evolved over time

Describe genetic components of conception

Once a ripened egg is released from the ovary, it moves into the fallopian tube and reaches the uterus in 3 to 4 days. Once a single sperm unites with the nucleus of the egg, a new cell with the combined genetic information from both parents, is a zygote

Describe genes and their importance in genetic inheritance

For genes on an autosome (any chromosome other than a sex chromosome), the alleles and their associated traits are autosomal dominant or autosomal recessive. In this model, some genes are considered dominant because they will be expressed. Others, termed recessive, are only expressed in the absence of a dominant gene

Chromosomal Abnormalities

occurs when a child inherits too many or too few chromosomes

-The most common cause of chromosomal abnormalities is the age of the mother

Prenatal Testing

-consists of prenatal screening and prenatal diagnosis, which are aspects of prenatal care that focus on detecting problems with the pregnancy as early as possible

-These may be anatomic and physiologic problems with the health of the zygote, embryo, or fetus, either before gestation even starts or as early in gestation as practical

Prenatal screening

an aspect of prenatal care focused on finding problems among a large population with affordable and noninvasive methods

Prenatal diagnosis

an aspect of prenatal care focused on pursuing additional detailed information once a particular problem has been found

Behavioral genetics

the empirical science of how genes and environments combine to generate behavior

Monozygotic

Monozygotic twins occur when a single zygote or fertilized egg splits apart in the first two weeks of development

(derived from a single ovum)

Dizygotic (fraternal twins)

two eggs or ova are released and fertilized by two separate sperm

(derived from two separate ova)

The Germinal Period

0-2 weeks

-lasts from conception to implantation of the zygote (fertilized egg) in the lining of the uterus.

-mitosis

The Embryonic Period

3-8 weeks

-begins once the zygote is implanted in the uterine wall. It lasts from the third through the eighth week after conception

-embryo, placenta

The Fetal Period

9 weeks to birth

-fetus: at 9 weeks

-From 9–12 weeks, the sex organs begin to differentiate

-16 weeks: Fingers and toes are fully developed, and fingerprints are visible

-Reflexes such as sucking, swallowing and hiccuping develop during the 5th month

-Between the 7th and 9th months, the fetus is primarily preparing for birth (It is exercising its muscles, its lungs begin to expand and contract. It is developing fat layers under the skin)

-Around 36 weeks, the fetus is almost ready for birth

Teratogen

any agent which can cause a birth defect

- lidomide, illegal drugs, viruses, toxins, stress, bacteria, alcohol, maternal diseases

Major Complications of pregnancy and delivery

-Gestational diabetes is when a woman without diabetes develops high blood sugar levels during pregnancy.

-Hyperemesis gravidarum is the presence of severe and persistent vomiting, causing dehydration and weight loss. It is more severe than the more common morning sickness.

-Preeclampsia is gestational hypertension. Severe preeclampsia involves blood pressure over 160/110 with additional signs. Eclampsia is seizures in a pre-eclamptic patient.

-Deep vein thrombosis is the formation of a blood clot in a deep vein, most commonly in the legs.

-A pregnant woman is more susceptible to infections. This increased risk is caused by an increased immune tolerance in pregnancy to prevent an immune reaction against the fetus.

-Peripartum cardiomyopathy is a decrease in heart function which occurs in the last month of pregnancy, or up to six months post-pregnancy.

Complications of the Newborn

-Assessing the Neonate (APGAR: Appearance, Pulse, Grimace, Activity, and Respiration - 1-5 mins after birth on a 0-2 scale, APGAR score < 5 is a risk)

-Low Birth Weight (< 5.8 pounds)

-Premature Birth (is less than 37 weeks gestation)

-Anoxia and Hypoxia (A lack of adequate or complete oxygen shortly after birth)

Summarize overall physical growth patterns during infancy

-For the first few, infants typically lose about 5 percent of their body weight

-weight loss is temporary and is followed by a rapid period of growth.

-By the time an infant is 4 months old, it usually doubles in weight

-by one year has tripled its birth weight.

-By age 2, the weight has quadrupled.

-The average length at 12 months typically ranges from 28.5-30.5 inches

-The average length at 24 months is around 33.2-35.4 inches

Fine motor skills

physical abilities involving small body movements, especially of the hands and fingers, such as drawing and picking up a coin. The word “fine” in this context means “small”

Gross motor skills

physical abilities involving large body movements, such as walking and jumping. The word “gross” in this context means “big”

Sensorimotor intelligence

Piaget’s term for the way infants think (by using their senses and motor skills) during the first stage of cognitive development

Reflexive Action (Piaget - stage 1)

-Birth to 6 weeks

-sucking, grasping, staring, listening

First Adaptations to the Environment (Piaget - stage 2)

-6 weeks to 4 months

-At first, most actions have to do with the body, but in months to come, will be directed more toward objects

Repetition (Piaget - stage 3)

-4 months to 8 months

-infant becomes more and more actively engaged in the outside world and takes delight in being able to make things happen by responding to people and object (ex: patty-cake)

New Adaptations and Goal-Directed Behavior (Piaget - stage 4)

-8 months to 12 months

-fussing, pointing, or reaching up to accomplish tasks, and work hard to get what they want

-object permanence

Active Experimentation of “Little Scientists” (Piaget - stage 5)

-12 months to 18 months

-begins exploring the world in a trial-and-error manner, using motor skills and planning abilities

Mental Representations (Piaget - stage 6)

-18 months to 24 months

-The child is now able to solve problems using mental strategies, to remember something heard days before and repeat it, to engage in pretend play, and to find objects that have been moved even when out of sight

Learning and Memory Abilities in Infants

-within the first few weeks of birth, infants recognize their caregivers by face, voice, and smell.

-Sensory and caregiver memories are apparent in the first month, motor memories by 3 months, and then, at about 9 months, more complex memories including language

-Infants remember things that happened weeks and months ago, although they most likely will not remember it decades later.

Stages of Language and Communication Development

Stage 1: Reflexive communication (0–3 months)

Stage 2: Reflexive communication; interest in others (3–8 months)

Stage 3: Intentional communication; sociability (8–12 months)

Stage 4: First words (12–18 months)

Stage 5: Simple sentences of two words (18–24 months)

Stage 6: Sentences of three or more words (2–3 years)

Stage 7: Complex sentences; has conversations (3–5 years)

Chomsky and the language acquisition device

This theory posits that infants teach themselves and that language learning is genetically programmed (nativism)

(language acquisition device (LAD): which makes infants ready for language)

Skinner and reinforcement

-it suggests that infants need to be taught language

-This idea arises from behaviorism

-B. F. Skinner suggested that language develops through the use of reinforcement