Module 3 Quiz 2 - All Vocab

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Carbohydrate

organic molecules made up of carbon, hydrogen, & oxygen; major source of energy; 3 main types - monosaccharides, disaccharides, polysaccharides

Monosaccharide

“simple sugars”; simplest form of carbs; typically contain 5 or 6 carbon atoms; basic building blocks for complex carbs; exs. glucose, fructose (fruit sugar), galactose

Disaccharide

carbs made via chemically joining 2 monosaccharides; must be broken down for absorption in the body; exs. sucrose (table sugar: glucose + fructose), lactose (milk sugar: glucose + galactose), maltose (malt sugar: glucose + glucose)

Polysaccharide

complex carbs made up of long monosaccharide chains (usually glucose); must be broken down for absorption in the body; exs. starch, glycogen, cellulose

Protein

large, complex organic molecules made up of long amino acid chains; important for tissue and organ structure, function & regulation; act as hormones for metabolism regulation, enzymes that catalyze biochemical reactions, muscle fibers, & structural components; must be broken down into amino acids for body absorption

Polypeptide

long chains of amino acids linked together by peptide bonds; make up proteins which typically consist of one or more chains

Amino acid

simplest building blocks of proteins ; consist of an amine group (holds nitrogen), a carboxyl group (acidic group), & an R group (side chain, differentiates the amino acid)

Lipids

“fats”, “oils”; store long-term energy, provide insulation for organs, help maintain body temperature; chemical exs. triglycerides & steroids (cholesterol); food exs. butter, cream, oils, etc.

Triglyceride

lipid molecule; made up of 1 glycerol bound to 3 fatty acids; major forms of fat storage; can be saturated or unsaturated

Saturated fats

fats typically solid at room temp; carbon connected solely by single bonds in fatty acid chains; found in animal fats - butter, meat; linked to health issues - atherosclerosis

Unsaturated fats

fats typically liquid at room temp; have one or more double bonds between carbon in fatty acid chains; found in plant oils - olive oil, canola oil; considered healthier than the alternative

Glycerol

simple molecule with 3 carbon atoms each attached to a hydroxyl group; where fatty acids attach to form triglycerides

Fatty acids

long chains of carbon & hydrogen atoms; can be saturated or unsaturated; attach to glycerol to form triglycerides

Cholesterol

steroid lipid that helps stabilize cell membranes & serve as bases for certain hormones; body can produce it, consuming too much can cause atherosclerosis

Steroid molecule

class of lipids that have 4 fused carbon rings; include cholesterols & hormones; exs. estrogen & testosterone

Nucleic acids

large organic molecules carrying genetic information; consist of DNA & RNA; store & transmit genetic info needed for protein synthesis & heredity

DNA

AKA “deoxyribonucleic acid”; nucleic acid that carries genetic blueprint; stores instructions needed to build & maintain an organism; made up of nucleotides; nucleotide form: phosphate group, deoxyribose sugar, nitrogenous bases (adenine, guanine, cytosine, thymine)

RNA

AKA “ribonucleic acid“; nucleic acid that carries out the instructions of the genetic blueprint; made up of nucleotides; nucleotide form: phosphate group, ribose sugar, nitrogenous bases (adenine, guanine, cytosine, uracil)

Nucleotide

link together to form long chains of nucleic acids; general form; phosphate group, sugar (ribose/deoxyribose), nitrogenous base (adenine, guanine, cytosine, thymine/uracil)

Enzymes

proteins that speed up chemical reactions without being consumed or changed in the process; help break down food, build molecules, & carry out many other vital functions

Salivary amylase

enzyme found in saliva; breaks down starches into simpler sugars in the mouth

Lysozymes

enzymes that help protect the bdoy by breaking down cell walls of certain bacteria which kills them; found in saliva, tears, & mucus

Pepsin

enzyme that helps digest proteins by breaking them into smaller peptides; found in the stomach

Pancreatic amylase

enzyme that continues breaking down starches into simple sugars: produced by pancreas & found in small intestine

Lipase

enzyme that helps break down fats (lipids) into smaller molecules like fatty acids & glycerol

Trypsin

enzyme that helps break down proteins into smaller peptides; targets basic amino acids; produced by pancreas & found in small intestine

Chymotrypsin

enzyme that helps break down proteins into smaller peptides; targets aromatic amino acids; produced by pancreas & found in small intestine

Carboxypeptidase

enzyme that breaks down proteins by removing amino acids one at a time from the carboxyl (end) side of the chain

Aminopeptidase

enzyme that breaks down proteins by removing amino acids one at a time from the amino (beginning) side of the chain

DNA and RNA Nucleases

enzymes that break down DNA & RNA molecules by cutting them into smaller pieces during digestion or cellular processes

Lactase

enzyme that breaks down lactose (sugar in milk) into simpler sugars (glucose & galactose)

Sucrase

enzyme that breaks down sucrose (table sugar) into simpler sugars (glucose & fructose)

Maltase

enzyme that breaks down maltose into simpler sugars (2 glucose)

Hydrochloric acid

strong acid that breaks down food, kills bacteria, & provides the acidic environment for enzymes like pepsin to work; found in stomach

Bicarbonate

substance that neutralizes stomach acid as food moves into small intestine → creates safe environment for digestive enzymes to work; produced by pancreas

Bile

fluid that helps break down fats into smaller droplets —→ easier for enzymes to digest in small intestine; produced by liver

Salivary glands

mouth glands that produce & secrete saliva which helps moisten food for easier swallowing; 3 main sets: parotid, submandibular, sublingual

Incisors

front teeth used for cutting food

Canines

pointed teeth used for tearing & shredding food

Molars

large, flat teeth at the back of the mouth used for crushing & grinding food

Esophagus

muscular tube connecting the throat (pharynx) to the stomach; transports swallowed food through peristalsis (involuntary muscle contractions)

Stomach

muscular organ that stores food & uses acids + enzymes to chemically break down food into usable form for the body

Gastric juice

digestive fluid that contains hydrochloric acid & enzymes, secreted by stomach 

Cardiac (esophageal) sphincter

ring of muscle between the esophagus & stomach that controls food passage; prevents stomach acid from flowing back into the esophagus

Pyloric sphincter

ring of muscle at stomach exit, controls the flow of partially digested food into small intestine

Small intestine

long, narrow tube where most digestion & nutrient absorption occurs

Large intestine

wide, shorter tube that absorbs water from undigested food & forms solid waste (feces) for elimination

Liver

large organ that produces bile

Gall bladder

small organ that stores & concentrates bile produced by liver, releases it into small intestine for fat digestion

Villi

tiny, finger-like projections lining the small intestine; increase surface area for better nutrient absorption

Peristalsis

involuntary, wave-like muscle contractions that move food through the digestive tract

Hepatic portal circulation

blood vessel system that carries nutrient-rich blood from digestive organs to the liver for processing before they enter the general bloodstream

Non-specific Immune Response

AKA “innate immune response”; natural, built-in body defenses against pathogens without specific targets; immediate or very quickly block or destroy pathogens; consists of skin, mucous membranes, WBCs that generally attack pathogens, inflammation, complement proteins

Specific Immune Response

AKA “adaptive immune response”; targets & defends against specific pathogens; takes longer to activate but provide long-lasting protection; consists of lymphocytes (T Cells & B Cells), antibody production, memory cells

Skin

outer protective layer of the body; physical barrier against pathogens; consists of the epidermis (outer layer), dermis (inner layer), & the sweat + oil glands

Mucous membranes

layers of epithelial tissue lining body openings; produce mucus which traps bacteria, viruses, etc. & filters to prevent pathogens from entering the body; contain antibodies & immune cells to defend against infections

Defensive white blood cells

AKA “leukocytes”; immune cells that protect the body against infections & foreign invaders; consists of non-specific: neutrophils, monocytes, basophils, eosinophils & specific: lymphocytes

Phagocytes

“cellular vacuum cleaners”; WBCs that engulf & digest harmful particles; remove pathogens & debris from the body; include neutrophils & monocytes (macrophages)

Monocytes

WBCs that move through the bloodstream, enter tissues, & develop into macrophages; act as phagocytes

Inflammatory response

non-specific response to injury or infection; consists of swelling, redness, heat, & pain; happens due to blood vessels dilating which allows immune cells & fluid to enter the affected tissue that fight off pathogens & start healing

Antimicrobial proteins

proteins that help fight & destroy pathogens like bacteria & viruses; 2 major types: complement proteins, interferons

Interferon

protein produced by virus-infected cells; helps protect nearby healthy cells by interfering with the virus’s ability to spread & multiply; activates other parts of immune system

Opsonization

process where immune proteins attach to the surface of a pathogen → easier for WBCs to recognize & destroy pathogen

Complement proteins

proteins that mark pathogens for destruction (opsonization), cause pathogens to burst, & trigger inflammation to attract immune cells

Sebum

oily substance secreted by sebaceous skin glands; help keep skin & hair soft; slightly acidic nature helps prevent bacterial growth on skin

Sebaceous gland

small skin gland that produces & secretes sebum into hair follicles & onto skin surface

Sweat gland

skin gland that produces sweat which helps cool the body, remove waste, & contain salts + enzymes that kill bacteria on the skin

Leucocytes

“WBCs”; help body fight infections & protect against diseases

Neutrophil

WBCs that defends body by engulfing & digesting pathogens through phagocytosis

Macrophage

WBCs that engulf & destroy pathogens, dead cells, & debris to protect the body & clean infections

Basophil

WBCs that release histamine which causes blood vessels to dilate & play a key role in inflammation

Eosinophil

WBCs that mainly defend against parasitic worms by releasing enzymes that kill or irritate parasites

Lymphocytes

WBCs that play a role in specific immune response; consists of T cells & B cells; help produce antibodies to fight specific pathogens

B cells

lymphocytes that produce antibodies to specifically target & neutralize pathogens

T helper cells

lymphocytes that activate other immune cells & coordinate immune response against pathogens

Antigen

parts of pathogens that trigger immune response; targets that immune cells recognize & respond to by producing specific antibodies

Antibody

AKA “immunoglobulins”; proteins produced by B cells that recognize & bind to specific antigens; help immune system identify & neutralize pathogens

Immunity

ability of the body to resist & fight off infections & diseases

Active immunity

body creates its own antibodies & immune cells after exposure to pathogen; long-lasting protection; exs. vaccination & infection

Passive immunity

body receives antibodies from another source; temporary protection; exs. injection & mother-to-child transfer

Natural immunity

protection body develops after being directly exposed to pathogen; infection

Artificial immunity

protection body gains through medical intervention; vaccination

Humoral immune response

process in which the body produces specific antibodies to fight a pathogen; macrophage engulfs pathogen → macrophage presents pieces of pathogen to T cells → T cells pass info to B cells → B cells transforms into plasma cells & travel throughout bloodstream to release specific antibodies

Plasma cell

specialized WBCs developed from B cells; produce & release tons of antibodies into bloodstream

Cytotoxic t cell

WBCs that identify & destroy infected cells & cancer cells

IgM (Immunoglobulin M)

type of antibody; pentameter (consists of 5 y-shaped antibody units joined together); good at agglutinating (clumping) antigens

IgG (Immunoglobulin G)

type of antibody; most abundant in the blood; recognize & bind to specific antigens, help neutralize pathogens & enhance their removal

IgA (Immunoglobulin A)

type of antibody; found on surface of mucous membranes; protects these areas by binding to pathogens & preventing entry into the body

IgD (Immunoglobulin D)

type of antibody; primarily attach to B cells & help stimulate them to differentiate (change) into plasma cells

IgE (Immunoglobulin E)

type of antibody; binds to mast cells & basophils, triggers histamine & other chemicals involved in allergic reactions or inflammation to release

Primary immune response

the body’s first reaction to a new antigen; immune system recognizes pathogens & starts producing specific antibodies & memory cells to fight it; takes time to develop but prepares body for faster defense if exposed again

Secondary immune response

body is exposed to the same antigen again; memory cells quickly produce antibodies to neutralize pathogen; faster & stronger immune reaction

Agglutination

AKA “clumping”; process where antibodies cause antigens to clump together → easier for immune system to identify & remove pathogens

Neutralization

when antibodies bind to a pathogen or its toxin & blocks its ability to infect cells or cause harm

Precipitation

when antibodies bind soluble antigens & cause them to form easily removable solid complexes

Autoimmune diseases

disorders where the immune system mistakenly attacks & damages the body’s own cells & tissues with antibodies & immune cells

Systematic lupus

autoimmune disease; immune system does the self-attack thing and inflammation spreads across the body; damage to skin, heart, kidneys, & liver

Type 1 diabetes

autoimmune disease; immune system attacks & destroys insulin-producing cells in the pancreas → lack of insulin & high blood sugar

Rheumatoid arthritis

autoimmune disease; immune system attacks joint lining → inflammation, pain, swelling, & joint damage that can lead to deformity

Graves’ disease

autoimmune disease; immune system produces antibodies that stimulate the thyroid gland which leads to the overproduction of thyroid hormones → weight loss, anxiety, & nervousness (hyperthyroidism)