Food Sci Exam 3

Where are most Olives produced

In US, mainly in California

California ripe table olive – shiny black olives

* What olive do we eat


* where did it originate?
* __ tolerant
* needs what weather?
* Cultivated for how many years?
* Came to __ with the __

* Olea europaea L. (about 20 species of Olea but only one used for food)


* Originated in the Mediterranean
* Drought tolerant but needs irrigation to produce quality fruit
* Needs warm dry summer and cool winters
* Been cultivated for 5,000 years
* Came to California with the Spanish

Types of olive trees

Manzanillo – California-style black olives (table olives)

Sevillano – table olives

Mission – olive oil or olive oil

Arbequina – mostly olive oil

Original olive industry was to

__ olives are more profitable than __

how much of olives worldwide are for olive oil

produce olive oil which is expressed from the flesh of the fruit

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Table olives became more profitable than olive oil

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Now both table olives and oil produced

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About 90%

Olive production in California

how many olive oil companies? how many olive plants?

what color is ripe? what is unripe?

Harvested when?

____crop produced

Avg California production tons?

* 400 olive oil companies
* 2 table olive plants
* Dark purple is ripe, green is not (each ripens at diff times so most are handpicked
* Sept-Nov
* Alternating crops, large crop one year, small next year
* 94,000 tons per year

Primary Styles of Table Olives

Spanish-style green olives (Sevillian)

Siciliano-style green olives

Greek-style naturally ripe black olives

California-style black olives

Where does olive oil come from in olive?

Most oil comes from seed, but for lives it comes from fleshy part

Olives as food

primary means of removal?

what is sweetening called

Olives are inedible unless the bitter phenolic glucoside, oleuropein is reduced or removed

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Alkaline removal (lye processing or “treated”)

* Spanish
* California

Water or brine removal (“Untreated”)

* siciliano
* greek

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removal of oleuropein

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Oleuropein

how are olives harvested?

how are olives processed?

Hand harvested – About 1,000 olives on a tree

A worker can harvest 2 to 3 trees per day

Two processing plants in CA

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Process:

* Transported to plant
* Sorted
* graded and stored
* Curing
* Canning

two most predominant fermenters

Lactobacillus plantarum and Lactobacillus pentosus

Spanish-Style Green Olives

harvest color?

Treated or not?

What happens in brine?

Harvested green, Treated (Lye-treated)

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Brined: Lactic acid fermentation in brine

Siciliano-Style Green Olives

Harvest color?

Treated or not?

Fermenters in brine?

Harvested green, untreated,

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Brined with lactic acid fermentation or placed in water

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Will retain some bitterness that is considered desirable

Greek-Style Black Olives

Harvest color?

Treated or not?

Fermenters in brine?

Harvested black or purple, untreated

Brined: yeats fermentation of in water

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Will retain some bitterness that is considered desirable

“Kalamata” olives refers to cultivar

Olives will have a shriveled appearance

Could be placed in dry salt

California-Style Black Olives

Harvest color?

Treated or not?

Fermenters in brine?

Harvested at straw colored stage

Alkaline treated

Brined not fermented

Aerated to oxidize pigments to create black color

pitted and canned

Olive Pigments

Chlorophyll a and b (green)

Carotenoids and triterpenic hydrocarbons (yellow)

Anthocyanin (purple-black)

Olive pigments

__denatures __

___ oxidizes __ and makes them __

Lactic acid can remove __ from chlorophyll

what is resistant to processing effects

Lye denatures chlorophyll

Oxygenation oxidizes polyphenols which makes them darker

Lactic acid can remove Mg from chlorophyll creating pheophytins and pheophorbids grey-green color

Carotenes are resistant to processing effects

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Oleanolic acid

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Maslinic acid

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Ursolic acid

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Betulinic acid

Carotenoids in Olives

alpha-carotene

beta-carotene

lutein

zeaxanthin

beta-cryptoxanthin

lycopene

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Chlorophyll in plants

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Anthocyanin

Magnesium in chlorophyll leads to what

Green color

Olive video processing

1. Olives are graded by size and variety
2. Then stored in tanks from harvest time to when they’re ready to can them
3. In the storage tanks green olives have no oxygen in the tanks, while black California olives are oxygenated
4. Olives are soaked in curing solution where the olives are bubbled in air (leads to black color)
5. 7 day process to de-bitterizing the green olive and turning them black
6. After 7 day curing, each olive is pitted and canned
7. Olives are then washed and sealed into cans
8. Cans are baked at 262 degees for 12-15 mins

U.S egg industry

__ table eggs

__ table egg layers

__ economic value

5 top states = __% production

95\.3 billion

328 million

10\.6 billion

45%

Chickens are __ bred to lay 1 egg per day

Group of eggs =

How are eggs collected?

selectively bred

hutch

mechanically by machines several times per day

Why has price of eggs gone up recently?

Due to bird flu

Humans can’t get it since it’s not a foodborne illness

humans can get it from the birds from farm

U.S laying rate

has gone up from 1993 which was 250/ hen/ year now its 280-290 eggs

U.S top producing states

Iowa

Indiana

Ohio

Pennsylvania

Michigan

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lots of regions, next to population centers

Commercial egg facility

laying hens and processing of eggs on same facility

U.S egg industry is ___ integrated

* Companies w flocks larger than 75,000 hens in 1994 to 2017
* Companies with more than 1 million hens
* Companies with less than 5 million

vertically integrated (control every step)

* 1994: 350, 2017:201
* 63
* 15

Conventional cage eggs __%

Organic eggs __%

Cage free __%

81\.6

5\.1

13\.3

Breed of hen =

diff colors

Hens have __ oviducts

2, one regresses, one doesn’t

How do hens produce eggs steps

1. Ovum
2. Infundibulum
3. Magnum
4. Isthmus
5. Uterus

Hen’s ovary

* follicles in ovary fill with yolk and grow
* 10 follicles actively develop at once, most mature is released
* follicle can be 1mm to 25mm
* when mature, follicle ruptures and yolk is released
* ovum = yolk (proteins and lipids in vitelline membrane)

Hen’s oviduct

* Yolk takes 24 to go through the oviduct
* salmonella can get into tract and affect humans
* albumen covers yolk, chalazae keeps yolk suspended in albumen

Infundibulum

Magnum

15 mins: funnel that caputures yolk after ovulation

3 hr: secretes thick alubmin

Hen’s isthmus

* secretes shell membrane (inner/outer)
* chalazae is produced
* egg spins as it comes down oviduct and forms chalazae
* air cell forms between membranes

Hen’s uterus

* 21 hrs
* chalazae fromation continues
* plumping forms outer thin
* calcium carbonate forms on egg and creates shell w pores

Oviposition

contractions of the uterus which pushes the large end of the egg out first through the muscular vagina

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cuticle covers the outside shell

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ovulation → oviposition is 26hr

Egg cuticle

shell/membrane

albumen

yolk

prevents infection and stops bacteria

prevent infection

nutrition, phys protection/ infection

nutrition (vit and min)

egg color produced by

xanthaphil

Farm schematic

All houses usually connected to the processing plant by conveyor belt to deliver eggs to plant.

egg fertilized vs not

fertilized→ taken to hatchery

Non fertilized → distributed or to processing facility

Blood spots in eggs

come from when stigma ruptures

it happens and not rare

either disposed of or sent to other processes (pet food)

candled to sort them

meat spot = form tissue that gets in it

Anatomy of an egg

Grades of eggs

AA, A, B, loss (blood or meat spot is greater than 1/8 in)

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grade and size not related

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no averaging grades, if one part is B, then whole egg is B

Egg forms ___

inside out

Hen photocycle

hens hormones affected by amount of light

more longer days w/light = more eggs laid

wild birds lay more eggs in spring and summer

Egg sizes

Jumbo 30

Extra large 27

Large 24

Med 21

Small 18

Peewee 15

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8 of the 12 have to be one size

Physical Changes in Quality

1\. Formation of air cell

- thermal contraction

\- forms at large end

\- air is pulled through the pores

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2\. Enlargement of air cell

\- evaporation of CO2 and H2O

\- bicarbonate buffer system in egg

Chemical Changes in Quality

Thinning of albumen --- 2 theories

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1\. Lysozyme -- no evidence ovomucin

\-lysozyme complex → ovomucin + lysozyme separate ( fresh egg, pH 7.4) (stored egg, pH 10)

\- lysozyme decreased solubility with increasing pH (insoluble at pH of 10.7)

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2. Loss of carbohydrate group -- more accurate theory as egg ages:

\- increase in free ovomucin (glycoprotein = carbohydrate + protein)

\- increase in free carbohydrates

\- carbohydrate chains (starch) degrade as pH increases

Yolk -- weakening of vitelline membrane

\- stretching from plumping

\- then loss of water with storage

\- membrane not elastic

Maintaining Interior Quality

Refrigeration

Oil spray

increase humidity

increase CO2 environment

Good inventory control

Exterior Quality

specific Gravity (density of egg vs. density of solution)

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Egg Shell Thickness

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Egg Shell StrengthInterior Quality (destructive)

Interior Quality (destructive)

1\. Haugh Units (Mathematical relationship between thick albumen height and egg weight)

2\. Yolk Index - ratio of yolk height to average yolk diameter

3\. pH - pH 7.4 (initial) → pH 10 (alkaline) (final)

Interior Quality (non-destructive)

What does ___ do?

Rejected eggs are?

Candling: Air cell size (depth), Yolk mobility (yolk shadow)

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* Candling assists in determining the quality of shelled eggs. Poor-quality eggs are rejected.
* Rejected eggs – leaking, adhering dirt, stains, blood and meat spots

Microflora of egg shell dominated by:

Gram positive bacteria:

Streptococcus

Staphylococcus

Aerococcus

Micrococcus

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Gram negative:

Pseudomonas

Aeromonas

Proteus

Serratia

Alcaligenes

Salmonella, E. coli

Ovotransferrin (Conalbumin)

Binds metals (Fe)

Bacteriostatic -- prevents bacterial growth, doesn’t kill it

More effective against gram + (stricter Fe requirement

Lysozyme

Bacteriocidal – lyses G + bacteria

Peptidoglycan layer destroyed by lysozyme

\--Breaks linkages in CH2O portion of PG

Factors Affecting Spoilage

1\.Initial load

2\. External factors

3\. Intrinsic factors

4\. Nature of organism (G + / G -)

Types of Spoilage

1\. Black Rot – Aeromonas, Proteus; H2S production

2\. Red Rot - Serratia

3\. “Taint” - Organisms in large numbers

Salmonella Enteriditis

Transovarian

Oviposition

Cross-contamination

Mainly a problem in mishandled broken out eggs

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prevention:

Storage at < 4° C - Cooking (temperature)

Pasteurization (liquid egg or shell egg)

Screening (USDA) -- test flocks for SE and SP

Mottled Yolk

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* Not spoilage
* Only on surface of yolk
* Untreated cottonseed meal in hen diet contains GOSSYPOL
* Alters vitelline membrane permeability to water
* “Mottles” or “splotches” are areas of altered H2O concentration
* Gossypol is destroyed by heat

Egg Products Inspection Act

Year?

What does it do?

Must be inspected on____

Ensure that egg products are ___

Also requires ____

1970 - Law

Egg-breaking plants mandatory inspection by USDA

Must be inspected on a continual basis

Ensure that egg products are pathogen free

Also requires monitoring solids content for yolks and whole eggs

Egg Industry Structure

producers→ shell egg grading → further processors (food manufactures, bakery supply, food brokers) → end users

Six main products come from an egg-breaking plant:

1\. Liquid Whites

2\. Liquid Yolks

3\. Liquid Whole Eggs

4\. Shells

5\. Inedible Liquid Egg

6\. Inedible Shell Egg

Receiving and Storage for eggs

Receiving Options?

What are Under-grades?

Must maintain __

If eggs are to be held for__,____ should hold eggs at __

What is tempering?

Eggs held __ should __

Must be __ or __

Receiving Options

* “Nest run”
* Graded, washed, and sized

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Under-grades

* Wholesome eggs with quality defects that prevent them from being Grade A

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* Must maintain traceability
* If eggs are to be held for more than one week, should hold eggs at 45°F or lower
* Tempering – holding eggs at room temperature prior to breaking
* Eggs held above 45°F should never revert to shell egg market
* Must be pasteurized or cooked

Egg storage

Shell eggs are stored under refrigeration ___ until __

Having the__ as close as possible to __ reduces the __

Shell eggs are stored under refrigeration temperature (45°F) until it is time to prepare them for further processing

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Having the breaking facility as close as possible to shell-egg production reduces the impact of several variables on liquidegg product quality

Washing & Sanitizing of eggs

Shell eggs must be __ and __

Shells must be__ and__

Washing decreases ___

Monitoring __ is important -and federally regulated

After washing, egg shells are __

Eggs don’t have to be __ but can be__

* Shell eggs must be washed (90F or 20F above the warmest egg) and sanitized prior to breaking to produce liquid for processing
* Shells must be sound and free of adhering materials
* Washing decreases shell surface bacteria loads (pathogens and spoilage MOs)
* Monitoring wash-water temperature is important -and federally regulated
* After washing, egg shells are sprayed with a chlorine-based sanitizing rinse
* Eggs don’t have to be dried but can be moist from sanitizer application

Washing eggs

Potable wash water must be __

Usually a __ or __section

Sprayed with a __

______detergents used, pH __

Potable wash water must be 90°F or 20°F above the warmest egg

Usually a pre-wash or wetting section

Sprayed with a detergent solution

Alkaline detergents used, pH 11

Water when washing eggs

Must be a __

__ wash water must be changed every __

Washing equipment should receive ____ when water is changed

Must be a continuous addition of fresh water

Retained wash water must be changed every 4 hours

Washing equipment should receive a mid-shift cleaning when water is changed

Breaking in egg product processing

What happens?

Defects found?

__ are separated

__ eggs per hour

After breaking, eggs are __

* What is removed?
* What breaks up?
* __ is created
* liquids are __ and ______prior to __

individual eggs are picked up at high speeds, shells broken, the contents removed and contained individually for visual inspection before pooling with other eggs.

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If defects are found on inspection, the machine is stopped, the egg is diverted to inedible egg and the breaking clip/cup unit is removed and replaced with clean unit before resuming operation.

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Whites, yolks and shells are separated.

140,000 eggs per hour

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After breaking eggs are filtered

* Remove shell fragments
* Break up chalazae and vitelline membrane
* Creates a homogeneous liquid
* Liquids are mixed and chilled prior to going on to further processing

Common non-egg food ingredients include

* sugar
* salt
* color stabilizing ingredients (citric acid, phosphates, EDTA)
* viscosity-controlling ingredients (e.g. guar gum, xanthum gum, starch)
* dairy products (milk, skim milk, nonfat dry milk, whey, dairy blends)
* water
* flavoring

Homogenization of egg products

Homogenization produces a uniform mixture that can be effectively pasteurized

Pasteurization of egg products

Experimental non-thermal processes for pasteurization of eggs include:

Pasteurization processes used today are thermal processes designed to eliminate Salmonella spp. that may be in the egg

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High-pressure processing

Pulsed electric fields

Radio-frequency electric fields

Ultraviolet light

Irradiation

1800s to early 1900’s of the Broiler Industry

Type of flocks?

What was not discovered yet?

Backyard flocks

Dual-purpose birds (Eggs, Meat on special occasions or Sundays)

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Early 1900’s families would raise young chickens for meat

Seasonal production only

Vit D not yet discovered, limiting factor in production

Photoperiod influence not known

1920s to 1960s

Who started raising big flocks of chickens first?

Where did production start?

Why did it start in those areas?

USDA Voluntary Inspection program year?

“New York dressed”?

First on-line evisceration plant year?

USDA voluntary grading (for quality) program initiated year?

Chickens specifically breed for meat production year?

Vertical Integration began year?

Mandatory federal inspection for wholesomeness year?

National Broiler Council (now National Chicken Council) year?

* Wilmer Steel raised a flock of 500 chickens for meat in Delaware, 1926 she was raising 10,000
* Production started in Delmarva Peninsula (Georgia, Arkansas, New England)
* Why these areas? Weather, land, water
* USDA Voluntary Inspection program - 1926
* “New York dressed” – Only blood and feathers removed
* First on-line evisceration plant - 1942
* USDA voluntary grading (for quality) program initiated - 1949
* Chickens specifically breed for meat production more common than farm chickens - 1952
* Vertical Integration began 1940’s
* Mandatory federal inspection for wholesomeness – 1959
* National Broiler Council (now National Chicken Council) – 1954
* Branding began by major companies

1970s to present

Highly __

Rapid proccessing through?

Per capita consumption of chicken exceeds?

Early 1980s consumers prefer?

US prefer?

__ required in large slaugther plants?

Highly vertically integrated

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Industry rapidly progressing through:

Genetics and breeding

Nutrition advancements

Disease eradication and control programs

Technology in mechanization and automation

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Per capita consumption of chicken exceeds:

Pork 1985

Beef 1992

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Early 1980s consumers prefer cut up and further processed products to whole chicken

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US prefers light meat, dark meat for export

HACCP required in large slaughter plants 1998

Required __ weeks to grow out a bird that now takes __

Average mortality was __now about __

Required__ of feed for 4-lb bird, now requires __ fed for 4-lb bird

Required 15 weeks to grow out a bird that now takes 6 weeks

Average mortality was 18% now about 3.7%

Required 16 lb of feed for 4-lb bird, now requires 7 lb fed for 4-lb bird

Advantages of Vertical Integration

Enhanced biosecurity

Less labor due to improved technology and large flocks

Increased feed efficiency

Reduced growing period

Uniformity of product

Increased food safety

Increased feed safety

Improved welfare

In US __ of birds grown under contract with a vertically integrated company

90%

Responsibility of grower

Responsibility of Company

Contractor paid based on:

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Responsibility of grower

* Husbandry


* Provides land and housing facilities
* Utilities
* Labor Repairs and maintenance

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Responsibility of Company

* Provides chicks – company-owned hatcheries
* Feed
* Veterinary supplies and services
* Management services or field personnel
* Transportation for the birds to and from the farm

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Contractor paid based on

* Weight gained by flock
* incentive based pay
* A typical farm will gross $25K per house
* Most have 2 to 3 houses (50 to 100K birds)
* Usually a part-time job or part of a diversified farm

The broiler industry does not use?

Broilers mostly grown on__ in __

Hormones, Steroids, Antibiotics used in human medicine

Broilers are mostly grown on family farms not corporate farms

Broilers are grown in cage-free systems or houses

Top 10 Broiler Companies

Tyson Foods

Pilgrims Pride

Sanderson Farms

Purdue Farms

Koch Foods

Top 10 Broiler Producing States 2013

Georgia

Alabama

Arkansas

North Carolina

Mississippi

US Per Capita Consumption

Chicken 86.6

Beef

Pork

Turkey

Fish

Slaugthter

scalding

Evisceration

Physical separation of slaughter area and evisceration

feet removed and rehung

140 to 180 birds per minute

Opener

Remove viscera but attached to carcass

inspection

Viscera separated from giblets – liver, heart, gizzard Offal – Inedible protions

IOBW

\-washed inside and outside

Chilling Immersion

95% in US

Physical barrier between evisceration and chilling

FSIS Regulation – 40F or less within 4 hours

Chill tanks

Dwell time 45 min to 1 hour

Antimicrobials used

uses lots of water

water pickup: carcasses absorb water and is added to weight and increase yield

more chances to get cross contaminated

Air Chilling – EU

2\.5 hrs

less efficient

dries out and decreases yield

less chance for cross contamination

Further / secondary processing

cut up

deboned

portioning

mechanical separation

* recovering proteins on a carcass
* like a paste

addition of ingredients or heat

marination

bone-in and whole muscle

muscle formulation/ forming

coating

heating

freezing

What is Pectin?

Molecular weight?

Obtained from?

Used to form?

___ fiber

__ cholesterol

Treats ___

__ effects on blood sugar

Sold as ___

Taste and aroma?

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Partial methyl esters of polygalacturonic acid and their salts (K, Na, Ca, ammonia)

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Large molecular weight 150,000 or more Daltons

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Obtained from aqueous extraction of plant materials (citrus peels and apple pomace) followed by precipitation using salts or alcohols

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Used to form gels, thickening agent, and stabilizer

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Water soluble fiber

Lower cholesterol

Treat constipation or diarrhea

Positive effects on blood sugar

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Sold as food ingredient in the form of a powder or liquid

Bland taste and aroma

Pectin sources

Apples, plums, citrus, pears, guava, quince

Other fruits and berries have some

D-Galacturonic Acid

a “sugar acid”