BIOL 2251 Chapter 1

Anatomy and Physiology Chapter 1 The Human Body: An Orientation

anatomy

study of the STRUCTURE of body parts and their relationship to one another

physiology

study of the FUNCTION of body parts and how they work to carry out life-sustaining activities

gross/macroscopic anatomy

the study of large, visible structures

regional anatomy

study of all structures in a particular area (region) of the body

system anatomy

study of just one body system

surface anatomy

study of internal structures as they relate to overlying skin

microscopic anatomy

study of structures too small to be seen by the naked eye

cytology

microscopic study of cells

histology

microscopic study of tissues

developmental anatomy

studies structural changes that occur throughout life

embryology

study of developments before birth

chemical level

atoms, molecules, and organelles

cellular level

single cell

tissue level

group of similar cells

organ level

contains 2 or more types of tissues

organ system level

organs that work closely together

organismal level

all organ systems combined to make an organism

structural organization order

chemical level, cellular level, tissue level, organ level, organ system level, organismal level

maintaining boundaries

separation between internal and external environments; ex. skin

movement

muscular system allows movement of body parts via skeletal muscles and of substances via cardiac muscle (blood) and smooth muscle (digestion, urination)

responsiveness

ability to sense and respond to stimuli

digestion

breakdown of ingested foodstuffs, followed by absorption of \n simple molecules into blood

metabolism

all chemical reactions that occur in body cells

excretion

removal of waste from metabolism and digestion

reproduction

division of cells or production of offspring

growth

increase in size or body part of an organism

integumentary system

external body covering (skin), where vitamin D is synthesized, protects deeper tissues from injury, where cutaneous receptors, sweat glands, and oil glands are located

skeletal system

protects and supports body organs, provides framework for muscles, blood cells are formed here, bones store minerals

muscular system

allows manipulation of the environment, maintains posture, produces heat, forms facial expressions

nervous system

control system that responds to internal and external changes by activating muscles and glands

endocrine system

glands secrete hormones that regulate growth, reproduction, and metabolism, contains the adrenal glands (located above the kidneys), pituitary gland (located in the brain), thyroid gland (located in the front of the neck), and pancreas (located behind the stomach)

cardiovascular system

blood vessels transport blood which carries oxygen, carbon dioxide, nutrients, and waste

lymphatic system

picks up leaked fluid from blood vessels and returns it to the blood; immune system

respiratory system

keeps oxygen in blood and removes carbon dioxide

digestive system

breaks down food

urinary system

eliminates nitrogenous waste; regulates water, electrolytes, and acid-base balance in food

reproductive system

production of offspring

organ in the integumentary system

skin

organs in the skeletal system

bones, cartilage, ligaments, tendons

organs in the muscular system

muscles

organs in the nervous system

brain, spinal cord, nerves

organs in the endocrine system

pancreas, ovaries, testes, pituitary gland, adrenal gland, thyroid gland, hypothalamus, thyroid

organs in the cardiovascular system

heart, blood vessels

organs in the lymphatic system

bone marrow, thymus, spleen, lymph nodes

organs in the respiratory system

lungs, trachea, pharynx, larynx, bronchi

organs in the digestive system

stomach, intestines, esophagus, rectum, mouth, anus, liver, pancreas, gallbladder

organs in the urinary system

kidney, bladder, urethra, ureter, renal pelvis

organs in the male reproductive system

penis, testes, scrotum, prostate gland, vas deferens

organs in the female reproductive system

vagina, uterus, fallopian tubes, ovaries

human survival needs

nutrients, oxygen, water, normal body temperature, appropriate atmospheric pressure

homeostasis

the maintenance of relatively stable internal conditions despite changes in the environment

receptor/sensor

monitors environment and responds to stimuli

control center

determines set point at which variable is maintained (ex. body temp: 98.6F), receives input from receptor, and determines appropriate response

effector

receives output from control center, provides the means to respond, response either reduces stimulus (negative feedback) or enhances stimulus (positive feedback)

negative feedback

most-used feedback mechanism in the body, response either reduces or shuts off stimulus, ex. regulation of body temperature and regulation of glucose insulin

positive feedback

response enhances or exaggerates original stimulus, usually controls infrequent events that do not require continuous adjustment, ex. enhancement of labor contractions by oxytocin

homeostatic imbalance

disturbance of homeostasis, can be caused by aging, increases risk of disease, can cause heart failure, can be caused by structures straying into other cavities

standard anatomical position

body erect, feet slightly apart, palms facing forward with thumbs pointing away from the body

superior/cranial

toward the head or upper part of the structure; above

inferior/caudal

away from the head or towards the lower part of the structure; below

anterior/ventral

toward or at the front of the body; in front of

posterior/dorsal

toward or at the back of the body; behind

medial

toward or at the midline of the body; the inner side

lateral

away from the midline of the body; the outer side

intermediate

between a more medial and a more lateral structure; between

proximal

closer to the origin of the body part or point of attachment of a limb to the body trunk

distal

farther from the origin of the body part or point of attachment of a limb to the body trunk

superficial/external

toward or at the body surface

deep/internal

away from the body surface

axial

head, neck, and trunk

appendicular

limbs (legs and arms)

sagittal plane

divides the body vertically into left and right

frontal/coronal plane

divides the body vertically into front(anterior) and back(posterior)

transverse plane

divides the body horizontally into top and bottom

oblique section

results of cuts at an angle other than 90 degrees to the vertical plane

body cavities

provides protection to organs

dorsal body cavity

protects the nervous system; contains the cranial cavity and the vertebral cavity

cranial cavity

encases the brain

vertebral cavity

encases the spinal cord

ventral body cavity

protects internal organs; contains the thoracic cavity and the abdominopelvic cavity

thoracic cavity

contains two pleural cavities, the pericardial cavity, and the mediastinum

pleural cavities

encases the lungs

pericardial cavity

encases the heart

upper mediastinum cavity

encases the esophagus and trachea

abdominopelvic cavity

consists of the abdominal cavity and the pelvic cavity

abdominal cavity

encases the stomach, intestines, spleen and liver

pelvic cavity

encases the urinary bladder, reproductive organs, and rectum

serosa/serous membrane

thin double-layered membrane in the ventral cavity

parietal serosa

lines body cavity walls

visceral serosa

covers internal organs

right hypochondriac region

upper right corner; contains the right kidney, liver, and gallbladder

epigastric region

upper middle; contains the stomach, both kidneys, liver, and pancreas

left hypochondriac region

upper left corner; contains the left kidney, spleen, and stomach

right lumbar region

middle right; contains right kidney, small intestines, ascending colon