CD399

a membranous tube reinforced by rings of cartilage that conveys air to and from the lungs

what is the trachea? what is its composition? what does it do?

windpipe

what is the trachea also known as

the small air sacs where the exchange of oxygen and CO2 takes place

they expand during inhalation and shrink during exhalation, picking up the incoming energy you breathe in

what are alveoli and what do they do

arteries

____ carry oxygen-rich blood away from the heart

veins

_____ carry blood containing waste products (CO2) back through the heart to the lungs

visceral pleura

the layer of tissue that covers the lungs and dips into spaces

parietal pleura

lines the interior of the thorax

intrapleural space

the space between the parietal and visceral pleura

states that in a closed space, pressure and volume are inversely related

as volume decreases, pressure increases and vice versa

the relationship between gass pressure and volume helps to explain the mechanics of breathing

what is boyle’s law?

760 mmHg

what is the measure of atmospheric pressure at sea level?

in the lungs/in the alveoli

can be positive or negative

760mmHg

where is intrapulmonary pressure? what is it measured? what is the pressure amount?

the pressure between the two layers of the pleura

what is intrapleural pressure?

no

is the pressure value uniform throughout the cavity?

across the intrapulmonary and intrapleural cavity

the pressure that actually inflates the lung

4mmHg

what is transpulmonary pressure? what is its value?

the elasticity of the lungs is pulling in

surface tension is pulling in

the elasticity of the chest wall is pulling out

lymphatic vessels control fluid

why is there always slightly negative pressure in the thoracic cavity?

pressure across the intrapleural cavity -4mmHg

what is transthoracic pressure? what is the value?

pressure across intrapulmonary/atmospheric pressure

0 mmHg

what is trans-respiratory pressure? what is the value?

phrenic nerve to diaphragm and intercostal nerves to external intercostal muscles

what nerves are involved in respiration

move ribs outward and upward/sternum outward, increasing thoracic volume

what do the intercostal muscles do to aid in respiration

moves downard increasing the thoracic cavity volume

what does the diaphragm do to aid in respiration

decreased pressure

what does increased volume in the thoracic and pleural cavities mean

nerve impulses stop - inhibitory impulses stop muscle contractions

muscles relax - the rib cage and sternum move inward/downward, the diaphragm moves up

volume decreases - this means pressure increases

positive pressure equalizes-air out - positive pressure compared to atmosphere, air moves out of the lungs

describe quiet exhalation

forced inspiration is active, quiet exhalation is passive

what parts of breathing are active and what parts are passive

sternoclydomastiod elevates sternum

scalene muscles raise the ribcage

pectoralis minor raises ribcage

what muscles are involved in forced inspiration

internal oblique, external oblique, transverse abdominis, rectus abdominis, internal intercostals

muscles involved in forced expiration

stiffening of the chest wall and the sternal downshift of the ribs

what are some developmental changes that occur in breathing

spirometry

how do we measure lung capacity

how forcefully one can empty air from the lungs

what does spirometry measure

the state of equilibrium in the respiratory system

what is a resting expiratory level?

respiratory volume

means various volumes of air moved by or associated with the lungs at a given point in the respiratory cycle

tidal volume (TV)

the amount of air that normally enters the lungs during quiet breathing

expiratory reserve volume (ERV)

the amount of air you can forcefully exhale past a normal tidal expiration

inspiratory reserve volume (IRV)

produced by a deep inhalation, past a tidal inspiration

the extra volume that can be brought into the lungs during a forced inspiration

residual volume (RV)

the air left in the lungs if you exhale as much air as possible

total lung capacity (TLC)

the sum of all the lung volumes which represents the total amount of air a person can hold in the lungs after a forceful inspiration

vital capacity (VC)

the amount of air a person can move into or out of his or her lungs

the sum of all the volumes except residual volume

inspiratory capacity (IC)

the maximum amount of air that can be inhaled past a norma tidal expiration

the sum of the tidal volume and inspiratory reserve volume

functional residual capacity (FRC)

the amount of air that remains in the lung after normal tidal expiration

the sum of inspiratory reserve volume and residual volume

tidal breathing is a cycle of roughly 40% inhalation and 60% exhalation, breathing for speech is a cycle of roughly 10% inhalation and 90% exhalation

describe and discuss differenced between breathing for life and breathing for speech

f0 declination

a gradual decrease of fundamental frequencyover the course of an utterance that has been reported for a variety of languages particularly in reading studies and vocalizations of certain other species

starting with a higher lung volume raised the average sound pressure level

natural frequency

frequency where a structure vibrates, determined by mass stiffness/tension

if mass and tension of a vibrating object are held constant there will be one frequency at which it vibrates best

what components affect how an object vibrates best

he attached a small vibrator to an iron column in his laboratory, closed a switch, and it began vibrating

he noticed that at certain frequencies, specific pieces of equipment in the room would start to jiggle

changing the frequency would move the jiggle to another part of the room

turns out his vibrations were being transmitted all over manhattan

he started a small earthquake

this was the discovery of resonance

what is a short synopsis of nikola tesla

when outside forces cause a structure to vibrate at it’s natural frequency

what is resonance

mass opposes high frequency vibrations, stiffness opposes low frequency vibrations, resulting in resonant frequency which is the point where opposition to vibration caused by mass or stiffness is the lowest

what is the interaction between mass and stiffness

it opposes high frequency vibrations

how does mass react to frequency

it opposes low frequency vibrations

how does stiffness react to frequency

the glass harmonica

what did ben franklin invent related to resonance

positive resonance and negative resonance

what are the two types of resonance

because of Hemholtz resonance

the air pressure in the bottle is increased

the air in the neck of the bottle acts like a plug, pushing inward and building up pressure

this acts like a spring until we run out of energy and the compression stops

the process reverses and the air starts to decompress, forcing the air in the bottle out

the pressure in the bottle become slightly less than the room air pressure

the room air pressure forces air back inside the bottle

the sound you hear is the sound waves produced by the air moving in and out of the bottle

what happens when you blow in a bottle and why does sound form

a container of gas with an open hole

what is a Helmholtz resonator

the frequency a resonator will transmit

what is bandwidth?

irregularly shaped, wider bandwidth above and below Rf, responds quickly to applied frequency, heavily dampened

describe a broadly tuned resonator

regularly shaped, narrow range of frequency above and below Rf, responds slowly to driving frequency, lightly dampened

describe a narrowly tuned resonator

intensity is reduced by ½

how do you calculate the cut-off frequencies of a bandwidth

frequencies closer to resonance frequencies are amplified, frequencies further away from Rf are dampened or attenuated

how do resonators act as filters

the Bernoulli effect causes vocal folds to close

pressure builds below the vocal folds

vocal folds are forced open

elasticity causes the vocal folds to move back to the starting position

describe the myoelastic-aerodynamic theory

the vocal folds are a single mass

they vibrate in a uniform pattern

does not hold true as there are added pressures in the vocal tract

describe the one mass model and why it is accepted

the vocal folds are 3 independent masses

they vibrate in a wave-like motion

desctibe the 3 mass model

outwarf flow - vocal folds vibrate

describe egressive air flow

inward flow - vocal folds don’t vibrate

describe ingressive air flow

ejectives like /k/

describe glottic airflow

air from the esophogus (belch)

describe esophogeal air flow

the vocal folds are about 3 mm in length

a membranous portion comprises most of the length

F0 is about 400-600 Hz

doesn’t develop a 3 layer structure until about 4 years of age

vocal folds in infancy

voice use, smoking, consumption of alcohol, gastric reflux, psychological state

other influences that affect the system over time

the larynx and vocal folds start to increase

vocal folds lengthen and the membranous portion continues to grow for around 20 years at about 0.7 mm per year for males and 0.4 mm per year for females

the primary acoustic manifestation of these changes is a drop in F0 to around 230 Hz

what changes occur to phonation in childhood

degenerative changes start by the 3rd or 4th decade of life

what changes occur to phonation in adulthood and older

11.57 mm in males, 4.16 mm in females

how much do the vocal folds grow (on average) in males and females

120 Hz for men and 220 Hz for women

what is the average frequency at the end of puberty for men and women

the aging of the laryngeal mechanism

results in less precise control of frequency and amplitude

what is presbylaryngitis and what happens as a result

the vocal changes resulting from the aging process

results in the incomplete glottal closure during phonation resulting in breathiness and hoarseness

what is presbyphonia and what results from it

glottal space does not close properly

it can result in breathiness and hoarseness

what is incomplete glottal closure and what happens as a result

F0 levels change to reflect different emotions, different types of accenting and stress of syllables, and different grammatical constructions

the F0 changes contribute to the overall melody (prosody) of speech

what do changes in F0 levels affect

pitch sigma

when the frequency variability is measured in semitones rather than hertz

is 2-4 semitones for both males and females

the complete range of frequencies that an individual can generate

measured in semitones/octaves

what is max phonation frequency range?

the overall level of amplitiude during a speech task

what is average amplitude level?

10 dB SPL

what is the standard amplitude variability of a neutral, unemotional sentence?

a graph that plots a person’s maximum phonational range against their dynamic range

dynamic range is plotted on the vertical axis in dB SPL and F0 is plotted on the horizontal axis in hertz

what is voice range profile and what are on the axes on the plot?

vocal dynamic range

the amplitude counterpart of the maximum phonational frequency range

the physiological range of vocal amplitudes that a speaker can generate

normal for a healthy female - 50 dB minimum and 115 dB SPL maximum

healthy adult male should be slightly higher

variations in signal frequency

can be used as an index of vocal maturation

children have slightly higher jitter values than adults

elderly adults have higher jitter values than younger adults

what is jitter and what does it tell us?

variations in signal amplitude

what is shimmer and what does it tell us?

in terms of cycle-to-cycle differences in the period and amplitude of each cycle of vocal fold vibration

how are jitter and shimmer measured?

harmonics to noise ratio

the higher the value, the more the harmonic components of the voice predominate over the noise

the lower it is, the more noise exists in the voic

what is HNR

noise to harmonics ratio

low value corresponds to less noise and a stronger harmonic component in the voice and vice versa

what is NHR

phonation and protection of the lower respiratory tract

what are the main functions of the larynx

thyroid, cricoid, epiglottis

what are the three structures that make up the larynx

C4-C6

where is the larynx located

cause the vocal folds to close

what do the bernoulli forces do?

fundamental frequency, vocal amplitude, resonant characteristics of the vocal tract, and rate of speech

what aspects of voice production are linked to vocal quality

they are adducted too tightly and there is too much medial percussion

the voice is perceived as tense

what does hyperadducted vocal folds mean and how does it affect vocal quality

they are not adducted as tightly as they should be and the voice is perceived as breathy

what does hypoadducted vocal folds mean and how do they affect vocal quality

causes hypernasal speech or insufficient nasal resonance

what does insufficient velopharyngeal valving mean and how does it affect vocal quality

hyponasal speech

what can insufficient nasal resonance cause

quality is clear, pitch and loudness are appropriate for the age gender and situation, the voice is produced without effort or pain, voice is satisfactory to speaker

what characteristics determine normal vocal quality

gender, age, build, culture, region, personality, degree of voice use, vocal sensations, health

what influences the differences we hear in normal vocal quality

from the minimum pitch to the highest pitch

the voice is perceived as monotone

what is maximum frequency range and what is perceived if the range is reduced

the longest period of time an individual can sustain a vowel in one breath

a problem in adequately valving the air stream for speech

what is maximum phonation time and what is indicated when it is reduced

habitual pitch

when fundamental frequencies do not sound normal

a helathy speaker should be able to vary their amplitude in a minimum of about 20-30 dB

if this is restricted a person will sound monotone

what is a normal min and max intensity and what happens if these levels cannot be met

1% or less

what is the normal value for jitter