Biology Final Exam

Heterozygous

An organism that has two different alleles for a trait

Homozygous

An organism that has two identical alleles for a trait

Phenotype

An organism's physical appearance, or visible traits.

Genotype

genetic makeup of an organism

Allele

An alternative form of a gene.

Punnett Square

A chart that shows all the possible combinations of alleles that can result from a genetic cross

Dominant

Describes a trait that covers over, or dominates, another form of that trait.

Recessive

Describes a trait that is covered over, or dominated, by another form of that trait and seems to disappear.

Pedigree

A chart or "family tree" that tracks which members of a family have a particular trait

Gene

a unit of heredity that is transferred from a parent to offspring and is held to determine some characteristic of the offspring.

Homologous

term used to refer to chromosomes that each have a corresponding chromosome from the opposite-sex parent

Crossing-over

Process in which homologous chromosomes exchange portions of their chromatids during meiosis.

Heredity

Passing of traits from parents to offspring

DNA

deoxyribonucleic acid, a self-replicating material present in nearly all living organisms as the main constituent of chromosomes. It is the carrier of genetic information.

RNA

ribonucleic acid

cell cycle

series of events that cells go through as they grow and divide

Describe the cell cycle

1. The cell cycle starts when a cell has been produced by cell division and ends with the cell dividing to produce two identical cells
2. The cell cycle consists of a period of cell growth and DNA replication, called interphase and a period of cell division called mitosis.
3. Interphase (cell growth) is subdivided into three separate growth stages. These are called G1, S and G2

Three types of RNA

messenger RNA, transfer RNA, ribosomal RNA

cellular respiration

Process that releases energy by breaking down glucose and other food molecules in the presence of oxygen

Mitosis

part of eukaryotic cell division during which the cell nucleus divides

Mitosis phases

prophase, metaphase, anaphase, telophase

Prophase

first and longest phase of mitosis, during which the chromosomes become visible and the centrioles separate and take up positions on the opposite sides of the nucleus

Metaphase

second phase of mitosis, during which the chromosomes line up across the center of the cell

Anaphase

Phase of mitosis in which the chromosomes separate and move to opposite ends of the cell

Telophase

the final phase of cell division, between anaphase and interphase, in which the chromatids or chromosomes move to opposite ends of the cell and two nuclei are formed.

Meiosis

Cell division that produces reproductive cells in sexually reproducing organisms

Meiosis phases

Prophase 1, Metaphase 1, Anaphase 1, Telophase 1, Prophase 2, Metaphase 2, Anaphase 2, Telophase 2

Mitosis vs. Meiosis

Mitosis: one division forming 2 identical cells (clones); Meiosis: two divisions forming 4 genetically different cells

Gregor Mendel

Father of genetics

codon chart

Device used to determine the amino acid coded for by a codon

Griffith's experiment

1928, British scientists Fredrick Griffith was trying to figure out how bacteria make people sick. Specifically looked at two different strains of bacteria either did or didn't cause pneumonia

S strain bacteria

Disease causing bacteria

R strain bacteria

harmless bacteria

Avery Experiment (1944)

1. Repeated the Griffith experiment with various treatments of the dead pathogenic bacteria
2. Treatments that destroyed or removed RNA, protein, lipids, and polysaccharides did not stop the transformation
3. Treatments that destroyed DNA did stop the transformation

The Hershey-Chase Experiment

confirmed that DNA is the genetic material because only radiolabeled DNA could be found in bacteriophage-infected bacteria

Franklin's x-ray

Used a technique called X—ray diffraction to get information about the structure of the DNA molecule

Watson and Crick

Figured out structure of DNA was a double helix

female reproductive system

produces eggs for reproduction and provides place for growing baby.

male reporductive system

organs that produce sperm cells and male hormones

Which of the following best describes a structural similarity between the two molecules shown in Figure 1 that is relevant to their function?

Both molecules contain nucleotides that form base pairs with other nucleotides, which allows each molecule to act as a template in the synthesis of other nucleic acid molecules.

molecular genetics

the study and manipulation of DNA on a molecular level

Charagaff's Rule

specifies that the amounts of guanine and cytosine be the same. While the ratios of adenine and thiamine are the same

Charagaff's Rule simplified

A\=T and C\=G

steps of cellular respiration

1. Glycolysis
2. Krebs Cycle
3. Electron Transport Chain

Where does glycolysis occur?

cytoplasm

Where does the Krebs cycle occur?

mitochondrial matrix

Where does the electron transport chain occur?

inner membrane of mitochondria

In what organelle is the most of ATP produced?

mitochondria

What is ATP?

Adenosine Triphosphate - ENERGY - is required for active transport.

What is the chemical equation for respiration?

C6H12O6 + 6O2 --\> 6CO2 + 6H2O + energy

What is respiration?

The process of transferring energy from glucose which goes on in every cell

The amount of ATP production depends on what element?

oxygen

What is the cite of fertilization?

fallopian tubes

Where are eggs produced?

ovaries

What is the length of gestation?

9 months

What are sex chromosomes for humans?

XX- female

XY- male

What is an example of a multiple allele trait in humans?

ABO Blood

What is a nucleotide made of?

5 carbon sugar, phosphate group, nitrogenous base

Base sequence of DNA all the way to the amino acids

CCG TAT GTC TAG GCT

Bases of DNA

Adenine, Thymine, Guanine, Cytosine

What is transcription?

The process of making RNA from DNA

What is translation and where does it occur?

the process in which ribosomes in a cell's cytoplasm create proteins, following transcription of DNA to RNA in the cell's nucleus. It occurs in cytoplasm

What enzymes are involved in DNA replication?

DNA helicase and DNA polymerase

definition of fermentation

a form of respiration where glucose is broken down by enzymes without the use of oxygen it is an anaerobic process

definition of glycolysis

the breakdown of glucose by enzymes, releasing energy and pyruvic acid.

What is the role of oxygen?

Oxygen is the final electron acceptor in the mitochondrial electron transport chain. The reduction of the oxygen molecule involves both accepting electrons and forming a covalent bond with the hydrogen. By using up hydrogen, the proton gradient across the inner mitochondrial membrane is maintained so that chemiosmosis can continue.

What is a haploid?

1 set of chromosomes

What is a diploid?

2 sets of chromosomes

Centromere

Area where the chromatids of a chromosome are attached

\# of divisions in mitosis and meiosis

Mitosis: 1

Meiosis: 2

New daughter cells receive (Mitosis)

2 daughter cells

New daughter cells receive (Meiosis)

4 unqiue daughter cells

Does mitosis produce haploid or diploid cells?

diploid

Does meiosis produce haploid or diploid cells?

haploid

When does crossing over occur?

prophase I of meiosis

How many chromosomes are in the body cells of an organism who's haploid number is 10?

25

How many chromosomes are in sperm cells of an organism who's haploid number is 10?

10

How many chromosomes are in the body cells of an organism who's diploid number is 8?

16

How many chromosomes are in the egg cells of an organism who's diploid number is 8?

16

What is a sex-linked trait?

A trait associated with a gene that is carried only by the male or female parent.

What is codominance? Give an example.

neither of 2 alleles is dominant, blood groups

What is helicase?

Unzips DNA

What is a nucleotide?

Nitrogen base + sugar (ribose or deoxyribose) and phosphate group

function of nucleotides

store and transmit genetic information

How are DNA and RNA different?

RNA contains uracil, and DNA has thymine

Base pairs for DNA and RNA

DNA: A-T, C-G

RNA: A-U, C-G

Where do sperm mature?

epididymis

Where does the fetus develop?

uterus

What is the path of sperm in the male reproductive system?

After they leave the testes, the sperm passes through the epididymis, ductus deferens, ejaculatory duct, and urethra

function of uterus

receive, retain, and nourish a fertilized ovum

function of testes

produce sperm and male hormones (testosterone)

function of vigina

female;canal that leads from uterus to outside of the body

What is menopause?

cessation of menstruation

function of semen

Fluid in which sperm are transported

Supplies nutrients for sperm

Neutralizes the acidity of the male urethra and female vagina

function of urethra

carries urine from the bladder to the outside of the body

function of scrotum

keep the testes at the best temperature for sperm production

function of sperm

fertilize egg