Quiz 5

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Accommodate

Adapting one's current understanding to incorporate new information

Adolescence (Teen years into 20s)

Identity vs. Role Confusion (Teenagers work at refining a sense of self by testing roles and then integrating them to form a single identity, or they become confused about who they are)

Adolescence

The transition period from children to adulthood, extending from puberty to independence

Assimilate

Interpreting one's new experiences in terms of existing schemas

Attachment

An emotional tie with another person, shown in young children by their seeking closeness to the caregiver and showing distress on separation

Authoritarian

Impose rules and expect obedience; "Because I said so"

Authoritative

Both demanding and responsive; exert control not only by setting rules and enforcing them, but by explaining the reasons and encouraging open discussion

Concrete Operational Stage

Thinking logically about concrete events, grasping concrete analogies, and performing arithmetical operations

Conservation

The principle that properties such as mass, volume, and number remain the same despite changes in the forms of objects

Conventional Morality

Early adolescence level that cares for others and upholds laws and social rules simply because they are the laws and rules

Critical Period

An optimal period shortly after birth when an organism's exposure to certain stimuli or experiences produces proper development

Crystallized Intelligence

One's accumulated knowledge and verbal skills that tends to increase with age

Developmental Psychology

A branch of psychology that studies physical, cognitive, and social change throughout the life span

Egocentrism

A child's difficulty taking other's point of view

Elementary School (6 years to puberty)

Competence vs. Inferiority (Children learn the pleasure of applying themselves to tasks, or they feel inferior)

Embryo

The developing human organism from about two weeks after fertilization through the second month

Erik Erikson

Created an 8-stage theory to show how people evolve through the life span

Fetal Alcohol Syndrome (FAS)

Physical and cognitive abnormalities in children caused by a pregnant woman's heavy drinking

Fetus

The developing human organism from nine weeks after conception to birth

Fluid Intelligence

One's ability to reason speedily and abstractly and tends to decrease during late adulthood

Formal Operational Stage

Abstract Reasoning

Harry Harlow

Experimented with infant monkeys and attachment towards either a cloth "mother" or a wire one with food

Imprinting

The process by which certain animals form attachments during a critical period very early in life

Infancy (0-1 year)

Trust vs. Mistrust (If needs are dependably met, infants develop a sense of basic trust)

Insecure Attachment

Pattern of attachment in which an infant avoids connection with the caregiver, as when the infant seems not to care about the mother's presence, departure, or return

Jean Piaget

4-stages of children's cognitive development, schemas, theory of the mind, assimilation, and accommodation

Late Adulthood (Late 60s to death)

Integrity vs. Despair (When reflecting on his or her life, the older adult may feel a sense of satisfaction or failure)

Lawrence Kohlberg

6 stages of moral development (pre-conventional, conventional, and post-conventional)

Lev Vygotsky

Emphasizes how culture and social interaction guide cognitive development

Levels of Morality

Piaget sought to describe the development of moral reasoning

Mary Ainsworth

Placed human infants into a "strange situation" in order to examine attachment to parents

Menarche

The first menstrual period

Middle Adulthood (40s to 60s)

Generativity vs. Stagnation (In middle age, people discover a sense of contributing to the world, usually through family and work, or they may feel a lack of purpose)

Nature vs. Nurture

How genetic inheritance and experience influences our development

Object Permanence

The awareness that things continue to exist even when not perceived

Parenting Styles

How and to what extent parents seek to control their children

Permissive

Submit to their children's desires, make few demands, and use little punishment

Post-conventional Morality

Affirms people's agreed-upon rights or follows what one personally perceives as basic ethical principles

Pre-conventional Morality

Child's behavior is governed by moral principles that have been decided on by the individual

Preoperational Stage

Representing things with words and images, and uses intuition rather than logical reasoning

Preschooler (3-5 years)

Initiative vs. Guilt (Preschoolers learn to initiate tasks and carry out plans, or they feel guilty about efforts to be independent

Primary and Secondary Sex Characteristics

Primary is the body structure that make sexual reproduction possible, and secondary is the nonreproductive sexual characteristics, such as female breasts and male voice quality

Puberty

The period of sexual maturation, during which a person becomes capable of reproducing

Rooting Reflex

A baby's tendency, when touched on the cheek, to turn toward the touch, open the mouth, and search for the nipple

Schema

A concept or framework that organizes and interprets information

Secure Attachment

Infants use their mother as a secure base from which to venture out and explore the world

Sensorimotor Stage

In Piaget's theory, the stage where an infant experiences the world through senses and actions (looking, touching, mouthing, and grasping)

Social Clock

The culturally preferred timing of social events such as marriage, parenthood, and retirement

Spermarche

Men's first ejaculation

Stages of Motor Development

Sit, crawl, walk, run; cannot run before you crawl

Stranger Anxiety

The fear of strangers that infants commonly display, beginning by about 8 months

Teratogens

Harmful agents, such as chemicals and viruses, that can reach the embryo or fetus during prenatal development and cause harm

Theory of Mind

People's ideas about their own and others' mental states

They'll play comfortably when their mother is present, but become upset when she leaves and are quickly calmed when she returns

Toddler (1-2 years)

Autonomy vs. Shame and Doubt (Toddlers learn to exercise will and do things for themselves, or they doubt their abilities)

Young Adulthood (20s to early 40s)

Intimacy vs. Isolation (Young adults struggle to form close relationships and to gain the capacity for intimate love, or they feel socially isolated)

Zygote

The fertilized egg that enters a 2 week period of rapid cell division and develops into an embryo

Acquisition

The initial stage in classical conditioning; associating a neural stimulus with an unconditioned stimulus so that the neutral stimulus comes to elicit a conditioned response

Albert Bandura

Defined observational learning with his preschool Bobo doll demonstration

Associative Learning

Learning that certain events occur together

Aversive Conditioning

A type of counterconditioning that associates an unpleasant state with an unwanted behavior (biting nails with the bitter nail polish)

Behaviorism

The view that psychology should be an objective science that studies behavior without reference to mental processes

Biological Predispositions

The presumed hereditary readiness of humans to learn certain skills, such as how to use language

Classical Conditioning

A type of learning in which an organism comes to associate stimuli

Conditioned Response (CR)

A neural stimulus that signals an unconditioned stimulus (US) begins to produce a response that anticipates and prepares for the unconditioned stimulus

Conditioned Stimulus (CS)

An originally irrelevant stimulus that, after association with an unconditioned stimulus, comes to trigger a conditioned response

Continuous Reinforcer

Reinforcing the desired response every time it occurs

Delayed Reinforcer

Does not immediately follow an action (paychecks)

Discrimination

The learned ability to distinguish between a conditioned stimulus and stimuli that do not signal an unconditioned stimulus

Edward Thorndike

Defined the Law of Effect, which was validated by B.F. Skinner's experiments

Extinction

The diminishing of a conditioned response; occurs in classical conditioning when an US doesn't follow a CS; occurs in operant conditioning when a response is no longer reinforced

Fixed Interval Schedule

Reinforces a response only after a specified time has passed

Fixed Ratio Schedule

Reinforces a response only after a specified number of responses

Generalization

The tendency for stimuli similar to the conditioned stimulus to elicit similar responses (generalizing a fear of dogs to all four legged creatures)

Immediate Reinforcer

Given immediately after the desired behavior (nicotine)

Intrinsic vs. Extrinsic Motivation

Intrinsic is the desire to perform a behavior for its own sake, and extrinsic is a desire to perform a behavior due to promised rewards or threats of punishment

Ivan Pavlov

Experimented with applying stimuli to dogs, and was able to make the animals salivate whether they were in the presence of food or not; process became known as Classical Conditioning

John Garcia

Studied taste aversion in rats, led to knowledge that sickness and taste preferences can be conditioned

John Watson

Established the psychological school of Behaviorism after doing research on animal behavior; conducted the "Little Albert" experiment

Latent Learning

Learning that occurs but is not apparent until there is an incentive to demonstrate it

Law of Effect

Thorndike's principle that behaviors followed by favorable consequences become more likely, and that behaviors followed by unfavorable consequences become less likely

Learned Taste Aversion

Intense dislike and/or avoidance of foods associated with nausea or discomfort

Learning

A relatively permanent change in an organism's behavior due to experience

Modeling

The process of observing and imitating a specific behavior

Negative Punishment

Take away a good thing (Driver license)

Negative Reinforcement

Increasing behaviors by stopping or reducing negative stimuli (taking away a curfew for good grades)

Observational Learning

Learning by observing others

Operant Chamber/Skinner Box

Contains a bar or key that an animal can manipulate to obtain water or food reinforce

Operant Conditioning/Behavior

A type of learning in which behavior is strengthened if followed by a reinforce or diminished if followed by a punisher

Partial Reinforcer

Reinforcing a response only part of the time

Positive Punishment

Give a punishment (spanking)

Positive Reinforcement

Increasing behaviors by presenting positive stimuli, such as food (Giving money for good grades)

Primary Reinforcement

One that satisfies a biological need (food)

Punishment

An event that decreases the behavior that it follows

Reinforcer

Any event that strengthens the behavior it follows

Results in slower acquisition of a response but much greater resistance to extinction than does continuous reinforcement

Secondary Reinforcement

Gains its reinforcing power through its association with a primary reinforce (money to buy food)

Shaping

Reinforcers guide behavior toward closer and closer approximations of the desired behavior

Spontaneous Recovery

The reappearance, after a pause, of an extinguished conditioned response

Unconditioned Response (UR)

The unlearned, naturally occurring response to the unconditioned stimulus, such as salivation when food is in the mouth