Exam 2 Dr. Berk -- Anth 1000

Taxonomy

assign and organize organisms to categories based on their relatedness or resemblance

Homology

similarities used to assign organisms to the same taxon

Analogy

common traits due to similar environmental pressures

Convergent Evolution

Two different species evolve similar traits but did not come from a common ancestor. EX: bats and birds

Primate Family Tree

Prosimians/Anthropoids
New World/Old World Monkeys
Apes

Primate Tendencies

1. Grasping Ability
2. Reliance on Sight over Smell
3. Reliance on Hand over Nose
4. Brain Complexity
5. Parental Investment
6. Sociality

Prosimians

Our most distantly related primate. Relatively small with a small brain. Nocturnal. Solitary

Anthropoids

Diurnal. Gregarious and more social. A larger primate than prosimians.

New World Monkeys

Prehensile tail. Arboreal (tree-dwelling). Nasal Morphology. Mainly in South America

Old World Monkeys

Terrestrial. Greater degree of sexual dimorphism. Located in Africa and South Asia.

Ape Species

Gibbons, Orangutans, Gorillas, Chimpanzees, Bonobos

Sexual Dimorphism

In Old World monkeys, there is a notable physical difference between males and females. For Apes: (chimpanzees) females are 88% the size of males. There is less difference in New World monkeys.

Orangutans

-Diet: varied diet of fruit, insects, bark, leaves
-Locomotion: more arboreal and climbs trees
-Social arrangements: Males forage alone, females and young stay together, also marked sexual dimorphism

Gorillas

-Diet: vegetation rich diet in bulk
-Locomotion: terrestrial (do not spend time in trees)
-Social arrangement: groups of around 20, lives in Africa, marked sexual dimorphism

Chimpanzees

-Diet: prefers fruit, omnivorous
-Locomotion: lighter weight so more arboreal
-Social arrangement: smaller degree of sexual dimorphism, communities of up to 50 chimps

Similarities (between humans and apes)

1. Learning
2. Tool Use
3. Hunting
4. Symbolic Commutation

Differences (between humans and apes)

1. Share Food
2. Plan, Carry out complex, multistage tasks
3. Spoken Language
4. Classify others as kin of various types and interact w them for life

Primate Tool Use

Termite fishing by Chimpanzees

Jane Goodall's Wild Chimpanzees

Discovered that Chimps make tools, eat and hunt for meat, and have similar social behavior to humans. Completely transformed our understanding of chimps

Bonobos

-Diet: omnivorous, like chimps
-Locomotion: arboreal
-Social arrangement: the community is centered around females

Hominid

Refers to the taxonomic family that includes humans and the African apes and their immediate ancestors

Hominin

refers to the human line after its split from ancestral chimps

Hogopan

hypothetical last common ancestor. the split 6-8 mya into different ecological niches and their diets became specialized

Earliest Potential Hominins

Ardi
Most complete hominid specimen
Close to 4 feet tall, 120 pounds
4.4 mya

Hominin Taxonomy

A. anamensis (4.2-3.9mya) Kenya
A. afarensis (3.8-3.0) East Africa
A. africanus (3.0-2.0) South Africa
A. garhi (2.5) Ethiopia
A. robustus (2.0-1.0) East/South Africa
A. boisei (2.6-1.2) East Africa
*Homo habilis lived alongside A. boisei for about a million years.

Hominin Evolutionary Trends

1. Body size
2. Locomotion (movement towards bipedalism)
3. Cranial capacity (bigger brains)
4. Tool use
5. Dentition (diets based on teeth)
6. Cranial morphology (brow ridge, sagittal crest)
7. Diet

Bipedalism

Ability to see over tall grass
Ability to carry items
Reduces body's exposure to solar radiation

Bipedalism and Physiological Traits

Position of spinal chord in back of skull
Pelvis forms a basket that balances the weight of trunk

The Rift Valley

Where early hominin evolution took place

Dentition and Diet

large molar size in correlation to diet; coarse gritty vegetation for heavy chewing on fibrous foods

Genus Australopithecus and Its Members

Gracile and Robust Australopithecines

Robust - large post canine teeth, large molars, incisors canines reduced, flatter faces, large chewing muscles \= heavy brow ridge, large zygomatic arches
Gracile - reduced zygomatic arch, less robust features in general

Oldowan Tools

- used for animal butchering
enabled some species to become omnivorous
- Cores and flakes - flakers were good for cutting and animal butchering
- Choppers for pounding, breaking, or bashing

Competition and Australopithecine Extinction

- Tool users displaced other hominins, pushing them into drier, less diverse zones, and some ultimately to extinction
- Ppl thought Homo habilis was first tool user but A. garhi also used tools

H. habilis

- coexisted w A. boisei for a million years (2.4 - 1.7 mya)
- relatively large brain
- long arges, small body (similar to a chimp)
- used Oldowan tools

H. erectus

- 200,000 yrs after habilis
- modern body and limbs
- even larger brain size
- rapid evolution

H. neandertalensis

- adapted to cold enviornments
- large torso with shorter limbs
- face pulled forward and broad long nose for added insulation for the brain
- more cranial capacity than modern humans
- used Mousterian tools
- wore fur hides
- diet was all meat

H. floresiensis

- 95,000 - 12,000 BP
- found on an island near Indonesia
- hobbit-like, human features
- very small brain

Hunting and Diet and Fire

- Ability to make and control fire enabled humans to cook veggies, meat, feed young and old members soft foods, eliminated parasites
- Increased reliance on hunting created a less robust cranial morphology and dentition

Anatomically Modern Humans

Homo erectus split into two groups: ancestral Neanderthals and Anatomically Modern Humans (AMH) early ones are known as Cro-Magnon

Behavioral Modernity

- symbolic thought, elaboration cultural creativity
- explosion of creativity
- more developed/mentally and with the natural habitat
- EX: Lascaux cave paintings. Cauva de Las Manos, Argentina cave paintings of hands using red ochre (9,000-12,000 yrs ago)

Punctuated Equilibrium

periods of stasis followed by periods of rapid change

Hominin Tool Traditions

1. Oldowan associated w Australopithecines
2. Acheulian associated w Homo erectus
3. Mousterian associated w Homo neaderthals
4. Upper Paleolithic (blade-like tools) associated w Homo sapien sapiens

Out of Africa

Immature Birth

Elastic skull (malleable) was how genus homo dealt with problem of brain size and birth canals

Bipedalism and Brain Size

Too big of birth canals impede with bipedalism
Narrow birth canals \= smaller heads but brains continue to grow outside of the womb

Barwinians to Lamarckian Selection

group selection becomes major factors in species success and inclusiveness

Neanderthal DNA

Neandertal DNA, when compared to modern human DNA, is different at 27 locations. The same section of modern human DNA, gathered from populations around the world, has only 5-8 differences. This suggests that the neanderthal ancestors split from Homo sapiens about 300,000 years ago (last common ancestor)

Cave of Forgotten Dreams

Video we watched in class w the big cave. Can't walk on the ground. in Chauvet Cave, France. Up to 32,000 yrs old. Shows complexity and modern thought.

In general, foraging societies tend to be

egalitarian (equality for all people)

Kottak and the Bible place humans in an original \________ which is preferable to the kinds of societies we live in now

state of nature

Western history idealizes \________ societies

hunter/gatherer

Broad spectrum revolution

hunted, collected, and fished a broader spectrum of resources in multiple locations
-varied and diverse diets

\______ was revolutionary in the middle east because it led to food production

Broad spectrum revolution

By 7K BP, people were abandoning broad spectrum economies in favor of economies based on \________ sources of food

few domesticated

The vertical economy

Consists of 4 geographically close, but very different env. zones:
1. highland plateau (highest part of land)
2. Hilly flanks (subtropical wooded zone)
3. Piedmont steppe (treeless plain)
4. Alluvial plain (very fertile soil region)

The fertile crescent is in the

middle east

The hilly flanks or vertical economy is analogous to the

garden of Eden (because food grew easily and didn't require too much toil from humans)

Agriculture origination in the Middle East

-When? Around 10,000 BP
-Why? The end of the ice age brought greater regional and local variation in climatic conditions (foragers could adopt a sedentary lifestyle) also the Natufians needed to produce more food than what was available in the wild
-How? around 11,000 BP drier conditions forced the Natufians to adopt new subsistence strategies like moving the wild grains to a well watered area

Impacts of the origin of agriculture

-intensive agriculture has significant environmental effects
-reduces ecological diversity by cutting down trees and focusing on a few staple foods

Domestication was the gradual result of attempts to recreate the Hilly franks economy in new \_______

climates

In contrast with broad spectrum foraging, domestication was more \_______ and focused on a smaller number of food sources

specialized

Wild Wheat/Barley

Wild: brittle axis, hard husks (brittle axis will break and seeds spread, insures future generation)
(hard husks will prevent bugs and critters)

Natufians

(12,500-10,500 BP)
-worked out the initial adaptation to this array of climates
-Built permanent villages in the Hilly Flanks
-became sedentary to remain close to their grain
-Surplus!!

Surplus presented 4 challenges

1. greater organization of harvest
2. greater limitation of access
3. increased routinization of distribution
4. new limits on on consumption

Key attributes of early cities/states

1. larger and more densely populated than previous settlements
2. productive farming economies supporting dense populations, often including cities
3. taxation (accumulate resources to support specialists, increased control and power)
4. monumental architecture (signify the rights and status of the rulers)
5. had some form of record-keeping, usually a written script (like cuneiform)
6. social stratification (unequal access to wealth and power)

Domesticated Wheat/Barley

-Hard axis, brittle husks
(hard axis stays on the stalk, makes it easier to cut and transport)
(brittle husks make it easier for people to break into)

Sheep and goat alterations

-bred to be smaller and more docile
-bred to be more efficient producers of wool, hair, milk, fat and meat

Suplus resulted in the emergence of the

state

Surplus takers

ruling elite, clergy

Production organizers

oartisans, officials oversaw food production

food producers

commoners and slaves

Pyramidal Social Form

-Top tier\= surplus takers, the elite
-Middle tier \= production organizers, includes artisans and specialists
-Bottom tier\= food producers aka commoners, peasants

Adaptive strategies (refers to main economic activity)

1. foraging (hunting and gathering)
2. horticulture (small scale, not intensive, not permanent)
3. agriculture (more permanent, higher yield)
4. pastoralism (pastoralists consume milk, butter, meat from their animals as mainstays of their diet)
5. industrialism

Correlations and features (to adaptive strategies)

-more complex tools
-permanent plots and fields (more labor intensive and sedentary lifestyle)
-increased specialization
-higher productivity
-radical alterations to the environment (deforestation)
-individual ownership over land and crops

Foraging

-until 10K years ago, all humans were foragers
-all foraging economies share one feature: people rely on nature to make their living
-in foraging communities, MEN usually hunt and fish while WOMEN gather and collect

Horticulture

-the cultivation that makes intensive use of none of the factors of production: land, labor, capital, and machinery
-horticulturalists make use of simple tools such as hoes to grow their crops

Agriculture

-requires more labor than horticulture, and uses land continuously and laborously
-sometimes includes irrigation, domesticated animals, and terracing
(an ag. strategy is to put all eggs in one very big and dependable basket)

Pastoralism

-people who focus on domesticated animals such as cattle, sheep, goats, camels, yak and reindeer
-live in symbiosis with their herds

Industrialism

-based on machines and chemical processes (fuel) which make it possible for the development of manufacturing, mass production and mechanization
-produces specialized jobs

Yehudi Cohen's typologies (1974)

based on correlations: associations or co-variations between two or more variables
(not perfent, some groups possess some correlated features but not all)
(NOT an evolutionary schema or mutually exclusive)

Economics

the study of production, distribution, and consumption of resources

Economic anthro

the study of economics in comparative perspective (like making a living and foraging for food)
**(the part of the discipline that debates issues of human nature that relate directly to the decisions of daily life and making a living)

Making a living VS foraging for food

until 10,000 years ago, there was NO difference between these two
-this changed w/ the advent of domestication and new forms of food production based on farming
(today, nearly 30K ppl make their living by foraging and its decreasing)

Modes of production

ways of organizing production; "a set of social relations through which labor is deployed to wrest energy from nature by means of tools, skills, organization, and knowledge"

Means of production:

major productive resources, such as land (territory), labor, and technology

Production, Distribution and Exchange in Different Economic Systems

-Production in Non-Industrial Societies: traditional division of labor between age and gender, mutual aid in production.
-Among food producers, rights to the means of production comes through kinship and marriage.
-Capitalist society bargaining is common; the buyer and seller trying to get their "max money's worth"
-etc...

Reciprocity principle

exchange between social equals that are usually tied by kinship, marriage or another close personal tie (it is more dominant in egalitarian societies, like cultivators, foragers, and pastoralists)

Generalized reciprocity

exchange w/ no exception of immediate return (parent-child giving, foragers)

Balanced reciprocity

exchange with anticipation of equal return
(Xmas gifts, bartering)

Negative reciprocity

the attempt to get something for nothing (cattle raiders, expecting something selfishly)

The Kula Ring

-Malinowski carefully traced a network of exchanges of bracelets and necklaces across the Trobriand islands, and established they were part of an exchange that was clearly linked to political authority
-MWALI armband\=male
-SOULAVA necklaces\= female
-system based on trust, obligation and shame
-Kula objects must be passed on, taking 2-10 years to make full cycle
-creates social networks and marriage options

Silent trade

also called silent barter; a method by traders who cannot speak each other's language can trade without talking

Redistribution

An example: A portion of our money earned goes to support the government but some comes back to us in the form of new roads, social services, health care, education

Rationality Markets

-based on supply and demand
-all-purpose money (as a relation substitute)
-fluidity, diversity, and diversity of exchange
-neutral relation w/ the other side of the exchange
(principles of exchange are NOT mutually exclusive)

Unilineal Descent

descent rule that only uses one line, so either matrilineal or patrilineal

Matrilinieal descent

membership based on relatedness through FEMALE ancestors

Patrilineal descent

membership based on relatedness through MALE ancestors

Potlatches and the profit motive

• Competitions to see who can give away the most stuff. Who is the most generous
-do this to gain social standing and esteem
-Classical economic theory: profit motive is viewed as a human universal, potlatching is IRRATIONAL and WASTEFUL
-Such a mindset is ETHNOCENTRIC and fails to consider alternative meanings and social function of potlatches
(CRONK argues that potlatching was a substitute for war AKA rivals can compete without shedding blood)

Bilateral descent

associated with our society, kinship systems do not have descent groups (we consider our cousins from our dad/mom's side all cousins)