2021 DHS AP Psych Midterm Review

empiricism/empirical methods

Information is collected by objective observations and experimentation using the scientific method.

structuralism

An early school of psychology that used introspection to explore the elemental structure of the human mind (WUNDT, TITCHENER).

functionalism

A school of psychology that focused on how our mental and behavioral processes function - how they enable us to adapt, survive, and flourish (William James).

behaviorism/behavioral perspective

Focuses on explaining observable behaviors. We behave in ways because we have been conditioned to do so. Skinner (LEARNING, REWARDS, PUNISHERS)

humanistic perspective

Perspective that emphasizes the GROWTH POTENTIAL of healthy people and the individual's potential for personal growth- think Maslow and Carl Rogers (NEEDS, SELF-ACTUALIZATION)

biological/biopsychological perspective

Looking at the physical and genetic determines of behavior (BRAIN, BODY, GENES, HORMONES)

psychology

Scientific study of behavior and mental processes

nature-nurture issue

The longstanding controversy over the relative contributions that genes and experience make to the development of psychological traits and behaviors

Survival of the Fittest (Natural Selection)

Process by which individuals that are better suited to their environment survive and reproduce most successfully (related to evolutionary approach)

biopsychosocial approach

An integrated approach that incorporates biological, psychological, and social-cultural levels of analysis (ECLECTIC)

evolutionary perspective

Explains behavior and mental processes in terms of their genetic adaptations for survival and reproduction (SURVIVAL VALUE, OFFSPRING)

psychodynamic/psychoanalytic perspective

A branch of psychology that studies how unconscious drives and conflicts influence behavior, and uses that information to treat people with psychological disorders (UNCONSCIOUS, CHILDHOOD)

cognitive perspective

an approach to psychology that emphasizes internal mental processes (thinking) and how we view the world.

social-cultural perspective

the study of how situations and cultures affect our behavior and thinking (SOCIETY, CULTURE, GROUPS)

psychometrics

These people eevelop and administer tests. The scientific study of the measurement of human abilities, attitudes, and traits.

basic research

Pure science that aims to increase the scientific knowledge base.

developmental psychology

A branch of psychology that studies physical, cognitive, and social change throughout the life span

educational psychology

the study of how psychological processes affect and can enhance teaching and learning

personality psychology

the study of an individual's characteristic pattern of thinking, feeling and acting

social psychology

The scientific study of how we think about, influence, and relate to one another

applied research

Research designed to help with everyday, practical problems.

industrial-organizational psychology

Uses psychological concepts and methods to optimizing human behavior in workplaces (HR help, employee incentive programs)

human factors psychology

Explores how people and machines interact and how machines and physical environments can be made safe and easy to use (psychology + engineering)

counseling psychology

A branch of psychology that assists people with problems in living (often related to school, work, or marriage) and in achieving greater well-being

clinical psychology

A branch of psychology that studies, assesses, and treats people with psychological disorders

psychiatry

A branch of medicine dealing with psychological disorders;able to prescribe medical/drug treatments as well as psychological therapy. Medical degree M.D.

Introspection

The process of looking inward in an attempt to directly observe one's own psychological process -developed by Wundt.

Mary Calkins

Denied Harvard PhD, but became first female head of American Psychological Association.

Margaret Floy Washburn

First women to get a PhD in psychology.

Gestalt psychology

Focuses on how we organize the world around us - perception. We create order out of chaos and make things "whole".

Sigmund Freud

Most famous psychologist of all time. Developed the psychoanalytic approach. Focused on the unconsciousness, sexual repression and childhood conflicts.

John Locke

Believed knowledge based on our experiences in in life. Nurture. Coined the term "tabula rasa" - we are born a blank slate.

Plato and Socrates

Believed in Dualism and that knowledge is inborn/innate (NATURE)

Aristotle

Believed in Monism and that knowledge comes from experience (NURTURE)

Abraham Maslow

Humanist psychologist that believed in the human's potential, self-worth and self-actualization--created the Hierarchy of Needs

Ivan Pavlov

Russian psychologist- father of classical conditioning- discovered it with his experiment with the salivation of a dog.

William James

First American psychologist, authored the first Psychological Textbook-known as the Father of Functionalism.

BF Skinner

Father of Operant Conditioning - a Behaviorist that created several experiment using reinforcements and punishments to "teach" subjects.

Wilhelm Wudnt

Created first psychology laboratory -known for developing Introspection.

Jean Piaget

Child psychologist that led the "Cognitive" psychology movement and was intrigued with the mind of children (development)

Charles Darwin

Proposed the idea of the evolutionary process through natural selection. Wrote the book -On the Origin of Species-supported that the strongest traits in a species survive.

Culture

Enduring behaviors, ideas, attitudes, values and traditions shared by a group of people - passed down form one generation to another.

Renes Descartes

French, believed in dualism, believed the mind and body communicated through "animal spirits" that flowed through hollow nerves. "I think, therefore I am."

Francis Bacon

(1561-1626) English. One of the founders of modern science, formalized the empirical method. Supported that we perceive patterns even with random events.

Monism

The soul and the body are in fact completely linked to form one entity, whereby one simply cannot exist without the other.

Dualism

The body and soul are separate entities, both fulfilling different roles and significance.

Edward Titchener

Student of Wilhelm Wundt; continued to use introspection, founder of Structuralist school of psychology.

cognitive neuroscience

the interdisciplinary study of the brain activity linked with cognition (including perception, thinking, memory, and language)

behavior genetics

the study of the relative power and limits of genetic and environmental influences on behavior

positive psychology

the scientific study of human functioning, with the goals of discovering and promoting strengths and virtues that help individuals and communities to thrive

testing effect

Repeated self-testing. Enhances memory after retrieving, rather than simply rereading, information.

SQ3R Method

Student-directed approach in which students are taught five steps for studying content: Survey, Question, Read, Recite, & Review.

biological psychology

a branch of psychology concerned with the links between biology and behavior

cognitive psychologists

Experiment with how we perceive, think, and solve problems

community psychologist

studies how people interact with their social environments and how social institutions affect individuals and groups.

Dorothea Dix

A reformer and pioneer in the movement to treat the insane as mentally ill, beginning in the 1820's, she was responsible for improving conditions in jails, poorhouses and insane asylums throughout the U.S. and Canada.

forensic psychologist

psychologist who applies psychology to law and legal proceedings

School Psychologist

Assesses and counsels students, consults with educators and parents, and performs behavioral intervention when necessary

health psychologists

Psychologists who study the effects of behavior and mental processes on health and illness, and vice versa

Environmental psychologists

study the interaction of individuals with their natural and urban environments. Focus on conservation.

Sports Psychologist

Helps athletes improve their focus, increase motivation, and deal with anxiety and fear of failure

Hindsight Bias

The tendency to believe, after learning an outcome, that one would have foreseen it. (Also known as the I-knew-it-all-along phenomenon.)

Critical Thinking

Thinking that does not blindly accept arguments and conclusions. Rather, it examines assumptions, discerns hidden values, evaluates evidence, and assesses conclusions.

Theory

An explanation using an integrated set of principles that organizes observations and predicts behaviors or events.

Hypothesis

A testable prediction, often implied by a theory.

Operational Definition

A statement of the procedures (operations) used to define research variables.

Replication

Repeating a research study, usually with different participants in different situations, to see whether the basic finding are consistent w another group.

Case Study

An observation technique in which one person is studied in depth in the hope of revealing universal principles.

Survey

A technique for ascertaining the self-reported attitudes or behaviors of a particular group, usually by questioning a representative, random sample of the group.

Population

All the cases in a group being studied, from which samples may be drawn.

Random Sample

A sample that fairly represents a population because each member has an equal chance of inclusion.

Naturalistic Observation

Observing and recording behavior in naturally occurring situations without trying to manipulate and control the situation.

Correlation

A measure of the extent to which two factors vary together-how well either factor predicts the other.

Correlation Coefficient

A statistical index of the relationship between two things (from -1 to +1). The r-score.

Scatterplot

A graphed cluster of dots, each of which represents the values of two variables. The slope of the points suggests the direction of the relationship between the two variables.

Illusory Correlation

The perception of a relationship where none exists.

Experiment

A research method in which an investigator manipulates one or more factors.

Random Assignment

Assigning participants to experimental and control groups by chance.

Double-Blind Procedure

An experimental procedure in which both the research participants and the research staff are ignorant (blind) about specifics of the experiment.

Placebo Effect

Experimental results caused by expectations alone; any effect on behavior caused by knowing they are a part of an experiment

Experimental Group

In an experiment, the group that is exposed to the treatment, that is, to one version of the independent variable.

Control Group

In an experiment, the group that is not exposed to the treatment.

Independent Variable

The experimental factor that is manipulated; the variable whose effect is being studied.

confounding variable

in an experiment, a factor OTHER than the independent variable that might produce a change.

Dependent Variable

A variable in an experiment that is being measured.

Mode

The most frequently occurring score(s) in a distribution.

Mean

The arithmetic average of a set of numbers.

Median

The middle score in a distribution.

Range

The difference between the highest and lowest scores in a set of numbers.

Standard Deviation

A computed measure of how much scores vary around the mean score.

Normal Curve

A symmetrical, bell-shape that describes the distribution of many types of data; most scores fall near the mean (68 percent fall within one standard deviation of it) and fewer and fewer near the extremes.

Informed Consent

An ethical principle that research participants be told enough to enable them to choose whether they wish to participate.

Debriefing

The post-experimental explanation of a study, including its purpose and any deceptions, to its participants.

Inferential Statistice

Results that can be generalized from the sample to the population to other groups.

Descriptive Statistics

Data used to measure and describe characteristics of groups.

Histogram

Bar graph depicting a frequency distribution

biological psychologists

the scientific study of the links between biological and psychological processes.

neuron

a nerve cell; the basic building block of the nervous system.

sensory neurons

Neurons that carry incoming information from the sensory receptors to the brain and spinal cord. Afferent Neurons

motor neurons

Neurons that carry outgoing information from the brain and spinal cord to the muscles and glands. Efferent Neurons