psychology unit 4

circadian rhythm

the biological clock; regular bodily rhythms that occur on a 24-hour cycle

REM sleep

Rapid eye movement sleep, a recurring sleep stage during which vivid dreams commonly occur. Also known as paradoxical sleep, because the muscles are relaxed (except for minor twitches) but other body systems are active.

alpha waves

the relatively slow brain waves of a relaxed, awake state

hallucinations

false sensory experiences, such as seeing something in the absence of an external visual stimulus

delta waves

the large, slow brain waves associated with deep sleep

NREM sleep

non-rapid eye movement sleep; encompasses all sleep stages except for REM sleep

SCN

a pair of cell clusters in the hypothalamus that controls circadian rythm

cortisol

a stress hormone that stimulates the body to make fat.

insomnia

recurring problems in falling or staying asleep

narcolepsy

A sleep disorder characterized by uncontrollable sleep attacks. The sufferer may lapse directly into REM sleep, often at inopportune times.

sleep apnea

a sleep disorder characterized by temporary cessations of breathing during sleep and repeated momentary awakenings

CPAP

continuous positive airway pressure

night terrors

a sleep disorder characterized by high arousal and an appearance of being terrified; unlike nightmares, night terrors occur during Stage 4 sleep, within two or three hours of falling asleep, and are seldom remembered

manifest content

according to Freud, the remembered story line of a dream

latent content

according to Freud, the underlying meaning of a dream

REM rebound

the tendency for REM sleep to increase following REM sleep deprivation

substance use disorder

continued substance craving and use despite significant life disruption and/or physical risk

psychoactive drugs

a chemical substance that alters perceptions and moods

tolerance

the diminishing effect with regular use of the same dose of a drug, requiring the user to take larger and larger doses before experiencing the drug's effect

addiction

compulsive drug craving and use, despite adverse consequences

withdrawal

the discomfort and distress that follow discontinuing the use of an addictive drug

depressants

drugs that reduce neural activity and slow body functions

alcohol use disorder

alcohol use marked by tolerance, withdrawal, and a drive to continue problematic use

barbitiuates

drug that depress central nervous system activity, reducing anxiety but impairing memory and judgement

opiates

opium and its derivatives, such as morphine and heroin; they depress neural activity, temporarily lessening pain and anxiety

stimulants

drugs that excite neural activity and speed up body functions.

amphetamines

drugs that stimulate neural activity, causing speeded-up body functions and associated energy and mood changes

nicotine

a stimulating and highly addictive psychoactive drug in tobacco

Cocaine

a powerful and addictive stimulant, derived from the coca plant, producing temporarily increased alertness and euphoria

Methamphetamine

a powerfully addictive drug that stimulates the central nervous system, with speeded-up body functions and associated energy and mood changes; over time, appears to reduce baseline dopamine levels

ecstasy (MDMA)

a synthetic stimulant and mild hallucinogen. Produces euphoria and social intimacy, but with short-term health risks and longer-term harm to serotonin-producing neurons and to mood and cognition.

hallucinogens

drugs, such as LSD, that distort perceptions and evoke sensory images in the absence of sensory input

LSD

a powerful hallucinogenic drug; also known as acid (lysergic acid diethylamide)

near-death experience

an altered state of consciousness reported after a close brush with death (such as through cardiac arrest); often similar to drug-induced hallucinations

THC

the major active ingredient in marijuana; triggers a variety of effects, including mild hallucinations

marijuana

a drug that produces a euphoric high, amplifying sensitivity to colours, sounds, tastes, and smells.

learning

the process of acquiring new and relatively enduring information or behaviours

habituation

an organism's decreasing response to a stimulus with repeated exposure to it

associative learning

learning that certain events occur together.

stimulus

any event or situation that evokes a response

cognitive learning

the acquisition of mental information, whether by observing events, by watching others, or through language

classical conditioning

a type of learning in which one learns to link two or more stimuli and anticipate events

behaviourism

the view that psychology should be an objective science that studies behaviour without reference to mental processes

Neurtral Stimulus

in classical conditioning, a stimulus that elicits no response before conditioning

unconditioned response

In classical conditioning, the unlearned, naturally occurring response to the unconditioned stimulus

unconditioned stimulus

in classical conditioning, a stimulus that unconditionally—naturally and automatically—triggers a response.

conditioned response

in classical conditioning, the learned response to a previously neutral stimulus

conditioned stimulus

in classical conditioning, an originally irrelevant stimulus that, after association with an unconditioned stimulus, comes to trigger a conditioned response

aquisition

In classical conditioning, the initial stage, when one links a neutral stimulus and an unconditioned stimulus so that the neutral stimulus begins triggering the conditioned response. In operant conditioning, the strengthening of a reinforced response.

higher-order conditioning

a procedure in which the conditioned stimulus in one conditioning experience is paired with a new neutral stimulus, creating a second conditioned stimulus.

extinction

the diminishing of a conditioned response; occurs in classical conditioning when an unconditioned stimulus (US) does not follow a conditioned stimulus (CS); occurs in operant conditioning when a response is no longer reinforced.

spontaneous recovery

the reappearance, after a pause, of an extinguished conditioned response

Generalization

the tendency, once a response has been conditioned, for stimuli similar to the conditioned stimulus to elicit similar responses

discrimination

in classical conditioning, the learned ability to distinguish between a conditioned stimulus and stimuli that do not signal an unconditioned stimulus

operant conditioning

a type of learning in which behaviour is strengthened if followed by a reinforcer or diminished if followed by a punisher

law of effect

Thorndike's principle that behaviours followed by favourable consequences become more likely, and that behaviours followed by unfavourable consequences become less likely

operant chamber

in operant conditioning research, a chamber (also known as a Skinner box) containing a bar or key that an animal can manipulate to obtain a food or water reinforcer; attached devices record the animal's rate of bar pressing or key pecking.

Reinforcement

in operant conditioning, any event that strengthens the behavior it follows

shaping

an operant conditioning procedure in which reinforcers guide behaviour toward closer and closer approximations of the desired behaviour

discrimination stimulus

in operant conditioning, a stimulus that elicits a response after association with reinforcement (in contrast to related stimuli not associated with reinforcement)

positive reinforcement

Increasing behaviours by presenting positive stimuli, such as food. A positive reinforcer is any stimulus that, when presented after a response, strengthens the response.

negative reinforcement

Increasing behaviours by stopping or reducing negative stimuli, such as shock. A negative reinforcer is any stimulus that, when removed after a response, strengthens the response.

primary reinforcer

an innately reinforcing stimulus, such as one that satisfies a biological need

conditioned reinforcer

a stimulus that gains its reinforcing power through its association with a primary reinforcer; also known as a secondary reinforcer

reinforcement schedule

a pattern that defines how often a desired response will be reinforced

continuous reinforcement

reinforcing the desired response every time it occurs

partial reinforcement

reinforcing a response only part of the time; results in slower acquisition of a response but much greater resistance to extinction than does continuous reinforcement

fixed-ratio schedule

in operant conditioning, a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response only after a specified number of responses

variable-rato schedule

in operant conditioning, a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response after an unpredictable number of responses

fixed interval schedule

in operant conditioning, a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response only after a specified time has elapsed

variable interval schedule

in operant conditioning, a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response at unpredictable time intervals

punishment

an event that decreases the behaviour that it follows

respondent behaviour

behaviour that occurs as an automatic response to some stimulus

operant behaviour

behaviour that operates on the environment, producing consequences

biofeedback

a system for electronically recording, amplifying, and feeding back information regarding a subtle physiological state, such as blood pressure or muscle tension

taste aversion

a learned avoidance of a particular food after a bad experience

cognitive map

a mental representation of the layout of one's environment

latent learning

learning that occurs but is not apparent until there is an incentive to demonstrate it

insight

a sudden realization of the solution to a problem

intrinsic motivation

a desire to perform a behavior effectively for its own sake

extrinsic motivation

a desire to perform a behavior to receive promised rewards or avoid threatened punishment

coping

alleviating stress using emotional, cognitive, or behavioural methods

problem-focused coping

Attempting to alleviate stress directly by changing the stressor or the way we interact with that stressor.

emotion-focused coping

attempting to alleviate stress by avoiding or ignoring a stressor and attending to emotional needs related to one's stress reaction

learned helplessness

the hopelessness and passive resignation an animal or human learns when unable to avoid repeated aversive events

external locus of control

the perception that chance or outside forces beyond your personal control determine your fate.

internal locus of control

the perception that you control your own fate

self-control

the ability to control impulses and delay short-term gratification for greater long-term rewards

observational learning

learning by observing others

modeling

the process of observing and imitating a specific behavior

mirror neurons

Frontal lobe neurons that fire when performing certain actions or when observing another doing so.

prosocial behaviour

Positive, constructive, helpful behaviour. The opposite of antisocial behaviour

sleep debt

A sleep deficiency caused by not getting the amount of sleep that one requires for optimal functioning.

sleep deprivation

any significant loss of sleep, resulting in problems in concentration and irritability

Melatonin

A hormone manufactured by the pineal gland that produces sleepiness.

frued's wish fulfillment theory

Dreams preserve sleep and safety to express otherwise unacceptable feelings.

information-processing

dreams help us sort out the day's events and consolidate our memories

physiological function

regular brain stimulation from REM sleep may help develop and preserve neural pathways

activation-synthesis theory

REM sleep triggers neural activity that evokes random visual memories, which our sleeping brain weaves into stories

cognitive development

dream content reflects dreamers' cognitive development- their knowledge and understanding