Anatomy - Exam 1

atomic number

number of protons

neutral atoms

same number of protons and electrons

ions

uneven number of protons and electrons
- example: calcium ion

cations

lost electrons
think "t" positively charged

Na + = cation or anion?

cation

Cl- = cation or anion?

anion; "chloride"

anions

gained electron
think "n" = negative

Ca2+ = anion or cation?

cation

ionic bond

ions attract to one another to form molecules
complete transfer of electrons
needs to be between anion and cation

NaCl is an example of what type of bond?

it is an ionic bond

the nervous system (action potentials) are examples of?

examples of ions in real life

action potentials are used for...

communication

the three types of bonds in molecules

neutral, polar, charged (ions)

water consists of what type of bond?

molecule that consists covalent bonds

covalent bond

sharing a pair of electrons between atoms in a molecule
two types are polar (small charge) and non-polar (no charge)

is water polar or non-polar?

molecule is polar
- because oxygen "hogs" electrons causing a small difference in charge (not as big as ion)

polar molecule

share electrons, but one atom hogs them

non-polar molecule

share electrons
ex. O2 and CO2

hydrogen bonds

weak bonds
between polar molecules that contain hydrogen

four major categories of organic molecules

carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, nucleic acids

organic molecules

molecules that contain a carbon

nucleic acids

function in heredity (DNA) and protein synthesis (RNA)

monomer

single molecular unit of a polymer (think of a lego block)

polymer

molecule containing many repeating molecular units (monomers)

DNA has a ___ bond backbone, and ___ bonds connect the base pairs

covalent; hydrogen

carbohydrate monomers

glucose and fructose
increase and decrease blood sugar

carbohydrate polymers

starch, cellulose (fiber), glycogen

what provides cellular fuel?

carbohydrates

enzymes (proteins)

used to BREAK DOWN sugar in the process of cellular respiration to release energy
polymers of amino acid monomers
have many diverse functions in physiology
- important for physiological processes
control many reactions that help maintain homeostasis (maintain balance)

three main types of lipids

phospholipids, triglycerides, and steroids

phospholipid

cell/organelle membranes
when there's a "p" in molecule
2 tails
cause the bilayer to be selectively permeable because of hydrophobic and hydrophilic regions

fatty acid

hydrophobic

phosphate group

hydrophilic

triglycerides

energy storage and insulation
consist of 3 fatty acids (long carbon chains that are like a monomer) and glycerol (holds fatty acid chains together)
3 tails

glycogen

short term storage

saturated lipid

found in meat and dairy products
all single bonds
contributes to cardiovascular disease

unsaturated lipid

found in plants, oils, fish, avocados
contain single, double, and or triple bonds
source of omega fatty acids (essential)

cholesterol

lipid - phospholipid bilayer
BAD; causes cardiovascular disease

primary structure

sequence of amino acids
folds to make final protein shape

DNA polymer

from genes
consists of four different nucleotides (monomers)

nucleotides

adenine, thymine, guanine, cytosine
arranged into genes in our DNA

adenosine triphosphate (ATP)

nucleotide that functions in energy transfer in the body

ATP hydrolysis

splitting with water
can be coupled to other reactions to cause physiological processes to occur
results in adenosine diphosphate (ADP)

gene expression

the process of making proteins from our DNA
process is regulated to produce necessary proteins for physiological processes

transcription

makes a working copy of the gene (RNA)
DNA to RNA

translation

translate the nucleotides to amino acids
RNA to protein

cytoplasm

fluid inside the cell
also called "intracellular fluid"
location of many chemical reactions

nucleus

location of DNA
surrounded by nuclear membrane (lipids) that help regulate transport in and out of the nucleus

organelles

endoplasmic reticulum and golgi bodies

endoplasmic reticulum

made of lipids
location of translation (protein synthesis) via ribosomes

ribosomes

organelles made of proteins and RNA
help with the translation process

golgi body

stacks of membranes
packing proteins for transport in membrane "bubbles" (vesicles)

organelles involved in gene expression

nucleus, endoplasmic reticulum, golgi bodies

nucleus in gene expression

production of RNA from DNA (transcription)

endoplasmic reticulum in gene expression

RNA is translator to amino acids (proteins)

golgi body in gene expression

packages the proteins for transport

some proteins stay in the ___, others travel to different cells via ___ and _____

cell; vesicles; cytoskeleton

cytoskeleton

network of proteins in the cytoplasm
functions:
- structural support
- tracks for transport of vesicle or organelles
important for muscle function

actin

cytoskeletal proteins that allow for muscle contraction

mitochondria

powerhouse of the cell
function in ATP production (cell respiration)
have a small, circular piece of DNA
inherited from mom (egg)

plasma membrane

made of phospholipids, cholesterol (hydrophobic), and membrane proteins

hydrophilic

love "polar" water
molecules that are polar or charged
examples: large, uncharged polar molecules (glucose, sucrose); ions (Na+, K+, Ca2+, Cl-) => CANNOT PASS phospholipid bilayer

hydrophobic

fear of water
molecules that are non-polar (steroid hormones) or not charged
examples: O2, CO2, N2, steroids; small, uncharged polar molecules (H2O, glycerol, urea, ethanol) CAN PASS phospholipid bilayer

can water diffuse across a hydrophobic core of phospholipid bilayer?

yes, but slowly (because small and polar)

what plays a role in what molecules can easily diffuse across a membrane?

size, polarity, and charge

transport of molecules across a membrane can be __ or __

passive; active

passive transport

does not require energy
example: diffusion
results in a concentration gradient (from high to low concentration) (moves down concentration gradient)
includes simple diffusion and facilitated diffusion

active transport

requires energy (ATP)
moves up the concentration gradient
can be carrier-mediated

simple diffusion

move directly through membrane
examples: O2

facilitated diffusion

carrier-mediated or channel-mediated

leak channels

channels that are open all the time

gated channels

only open at certain times

carrier mediated (active)

solute binds to protein channel
move molecules/solute UP concentration gradient
only when solutes are "pumped" up a gradient
proteins are called "pumps" (require ATP hydrolysis to function) (create a stockpile of molecules separated by a membrane)

carrier-mediated (passive)

solute binds to protein channels
example: glucose
includes facilitated when solute diffuses down a gradient
proteins move solutes down concentration gradient (solute must bind to carrier protein)

channel-mediated

leak channels and gated channels

tissues

collections of cells that work together toward a common function

histology

study of healthy tissues

pathology

study of diseased tissues

types of tissues

connective (skin), nervous (brain), cardiac muscle (heart), smooth muscle (large intestine), skeletal muscle (around bone), epithelial tissue (covers exposed surfaces

at the chemical level, __ combine to form __

atoms; molecules

at the cellular level, molecules interact to form ___ that secrete and regulate ____

cells; extracellular material and fluids

at the tissue level, cells and extracellular material and fluids combine to form ___

tissues

how are histological images produced?

fixation = preserves tissue
sectioning = makes thin slices
staining = makes structures visible

epithelial tissue

acts as "interface" between other tissue and the outside environment or internal cavities
example: epidermis of the skin
have four characteristics that distinguish it from other tissue: polarity, attachment, avascularity, regeneration
carries out four essential functions: protection, control absorption and secretion, location for some sensation, specialized glandular secretions

polarity

apical (top kinda bumpy) and basal (base) surfaces

attachment

to each other and to a basement membrane
tight connections to each other create "barriers" to molecules
basement membrane - built to withstand mechanical stresses

avascularity

must obtain nutrients by diffusion (from bottom up)

regeneration

lifespan 2-6 days
regeneration by stem cells

epithelial tissue - protection

prevents abrasion, dehydration, and destruction from chemical and biological agents

epithelial tissue - control absorption and secretion

some epithelia are relatively impermeable, others are easily crossed by molecules
epithelia contain "molecular" machinery for selective absorption or secretion

epithelial tissue - location for some sensation

sensory nerves in epithelial tissue are sensitive to stimuli

epithelial tissue - specialized granular secretions

physical protection if discharged onto epithelial surfaces (ex. sweat and mucus)
chemical messengers if secreted into bloodstream or interstitial fluid

skin

largest organ in the human body
is a membrane = the cutaneous membrane
it contains an epithelial layer and aerolar tissue

integumentary system

includes skin, nails, and glands

majority of blood is located in...

the deepest layer
blood moves up the layers of skin, making you warm/red
keep blood vessles cold for too long = frost bite (thermoregulation)

layers of the skin

stratum basale, stratum spinosum, stratum granulosum, stratum lucidum, stratum corneum

stratum basale

stem cells divide to produce keratinocytes
site of melanocytes and merkel cells

stratum spinosum

keratinocytes stop dividing
they bond together via desmosomes
shrivel up a bit due to losing water
site of langerhan cells

langerhan cells

immune cells looking for foreign bodies/pathogens that can be harmful

stratum granulosum

keratinocytes produce keratin and lipids and then die
lipids provide a barrier to water
second site of langerhan's cells