Apush Flashcards

First Three main civilizations

- Mayans: built cities in rainforests
- Aztecs: developed a powerful empire and had a very large population in the capital, Tenochtitlan
- Incas: (in Peru) developed a vast empire in south america
- All three developed organized cities, extensive trade, created scientifically accurate calendars
- Mayans and Aztecs (in north america -\> Mexico) grew corn \- - Incas (in south america) grew potatoes

Early Civilization in the Southwest

-Puebloans, Hokokam, Anasazi in dry region around Arizona & New Mexico
-Multistoried buildings under cliffs in cave like networks
-Complex irrigation systems -\> farming society

Early Civilization in the Northwest

-Yurok & Makah tribes along Pacific coast around Alaska to California
-Rich diet based on hunting & fishing
-High mountains separated tribes and created barriers for development

Early Civilization in the Great Plains

-Palut & Bannock in middle America
-Dry -\> not a lot of irrigation
-Hunter gatherer society
-Lived in teepees
-Followed the buffalo

Early Civilization in the Midwest

- Cahokia, Illinois & Shawnee
- Rich farmland -\> permanent and large settlements
- Center of Mississippi culture was Cahokia
- Trade links from Great Lakes to Gulf of Mexico
- One of the largest settlements built on corn cultivation
- Faced problem of food supply because the population was so great
*Use Cahokia as a complexity point to show that the Native Americans were perfectly capable without European interference and because of the columbian exchange many of the native americans died off because of the exchange of disease

Early Civilization in the Northeast

- In New York
- Iroquois Federation: a political union of 5 tribes: Seneca, Oneida, Cayuga, Onondaga, & Mohawk
- Three Sisters Farming: planted corns, beans & squash together and they would nurture each other like sisters
- Ends hunting and gathering era because now they have stable food supply

Motivations for European Exploration

- Technological advancements during the Renaissance
- Religious conflicts: Roman Catholic Church threatened by Muslim Ottoman Turks & people revolting against the pope
- Catholic victory in Spain -\>Isabella & Ferdinand funded Columbus's first voyage in 1492
- Protestant reformation in the 1500s against the pope
- God: Spread Christianity or escape religious persecution
- Gold: mine & trade with East
- Glory: for themselves or their nation

Columbian Exchange

- Europe Brought: sugar cane, pigs, horses, the wheel, guns & diseases
- Smallpox & measles killed millions of native americans
- Natives Gave: beans, corn, potatoes, tomatoes & tobacco

Spanish Exploration & Conquest

- The 1494 Treaty of Tordesillas neatly divided the "New World" into land, resources, and people claimed by Spain and Portugal
- There weren't actually any clashes between Spanish and Natives it was just the Spanish taking direct control of the Natives

Encomienda System

- Spanish entice Europeans to go to the New World and just pay taxes to the monarchy
- They would be given land, indigenous laborers and the mission of spreading Christianity it turns very brutal
- Encomienda ends due to Indigenous revolutions but leads to the Valladolid Debate
- The morality of saving "savage" Indigenous Peoples with Christianity and the morality of European Colonization

Asiento System

because millions of natives died to disease and they revolted instead the Spanish king gave spaniards enslaved Africans and land but in exchange they had to pay taxes and spread christianity

Saint Augustine

1565 (Modern Day Florida)
Oldest standing continuous American settlement, defended Spanish trade routes into the Caribbean

Roanoke

- 1585 (Modern Day North Carolina)
- Struggled as a stable colony due to lack of supplies and poor relations with Natives
- John White returned to the colony one day to find it completely deserted "Lost Colony"

Jamestown

- 1608 (Modern Day Virginia)
- First permanent British settlement that struggled through disease and conflicts with Powhatan tribe
- They were sent there to find gold, not farm but ironically there is no gold and it turns to cash cropping

New England Colonies

- Massachusetts and Rhode Island
- Economy
* Shipping, timber, trading
* Not Agriculture
* Supporting the export of raw materials from middle & southern colonies (especially southern cash crops)
- Religion
* Very Important
* Puritans & Separatist (Calvinist) escaped English church
* John Winthrop- City of a Hill
* "Religious Freedom" but only theirs
- Politics & Society
* Family Based
* Egalitarian (all people are equal & deserve equal rights)
* Mayflower Compact: first attempt at self government
* Democratic Town Meetings
* Mayflower sailed in 1620

Middle Colonies

- Pennsylvania and New York
- Agricultural
* Staple Crops (to eat)
* "Breadbasket" wheat, corn, oats, etc.
* Quaker oats-\>Quakers in Pennsylvania
- Religion
* Pennsylvania founded by William Penn, a Quaker
* Full Toleration in PA
* Pacifist (against coercion)
- Politics & Society
* Penn's Frame of Govt
* Proprietary Colony: run by owner pf the land, William Penn

Southern Colonies

- Maryland, Virginia & Carolinas (Chesapeake Colonies)
- Agricultural
* Cash crops (to sell)
* Tobacco, rice & indigo
* Jamestown (chesapeake) was a solely a profit-seeking venture.
- Religion
* Christian Toleration in Maryland (Catholic Haven)
* Anglican Church established in most colonies
* Least religious (until great awakening)
- Politics & Society
* Aristocratic (power held by nobility and the rich)
* Dominated by Large Landowners
* House of Burgesses 1619 (VA)
* First representative government founded in the colonies (although still run by the rich)
* Relied on the consent of the governed

The Act of Toleration

In Maryland in 1649; made it a crime to blaspheme God, the Holy Trinity, the Virgin Mary, or the early apostles and evangelists

Salem Witch Trials

Massachusetts, 1692. Young girls accused of witchcraft

Three Types of Colonies

- Royal Colony: run by crown directly
- Joint-Stock/Corporate Colony: run by corporations trying to make money
- Proprietary colony: run by a proprietor who owns the land
Ex: William Penn owns and runs Pennsylvania

Bacon's Rebellion

1676; NA's were attacking settlers so group of farmers requested troops from Britain but said no so farmer Bacon led rebellion. Led to fear and so less reliance on indentured servants and more restrictions on enslaved blacks

Triangular Trade

New England rum -\> west africa and trade for enslaved people
From west africa through the middle passage (cruel transport of enslaved africans) -\> west indies enslaved africans trade for sugarcane
Sugarcane sold at New England to make rum and repeat

Mercantilism

Each state wanted as much wealth as possible by maintaining a favorable balance of trade \= more exports than imports
If they they are exporting more then more gold and silver are coming in

Enlightenment

1685; elite's started thinking critically rather than relying on traditions and religious revelations
- John Locke: consent of the governed
- Rousseau: social contract and right to overturn government
- Montesquieu: three branches of government

Great Awakening

1730-50s; Started by religious ppl disliking Enlightenment
- massive religious revival which swept through all the colonies -\> intense christian enthusiasm
- George Whitfield traveled to all the colonies & preached
- Great Awakening resulted in large scale return to faith and bound colonists together -\> the start of an American identity

French & Indian War

1754-1763; Part of the greater 7 Years War
- Conflicts about the Ohio Valley

Albany Plan

-Created by Benjamin "The First American" Franklin
- A Grand Council
- A President General appointed by the King who would preside
- The Council could collect taxes for military expenditures
- Denied because colonists didn't get enough authority, the crown thought it gave them too much.

Peace of Paris

1763; Ends conflict in North America
- Doubles the British National Debt, cost of running the American colonies multiplies by FIVE!
1. Spain gives Britain the Florida Territory
2. France ousted from the North American Continent
- West of the Mississippi goes to Spain, East of the Mississippi goes to the British

Revolution Brewing

Impressment
Quartering
Enlightenment
Fought in the War for Britain
Previous salutary neglect but not when needed to pay for war
Increases in taxes
Thomas Paine's Common Sense

Intolerable Acts

1763- Proclamation Line of 1763: banned American settlement west of the Appalachian after the French and Indian War
1764- Sugar Act: increased duties on sugar, textiles, wine, coffee, indigo and other luxury items to pay for the war
1765- Stamp Act: taxed all printed materials; newspapers, bills, legal documents, contracts, playing cards, etc.
This really started the debate of whether Britain was just in taxing the colonists if they were not represented in parliament
Britain argued they were represented through virtual representation: members of parliament represent all classes of British citizens not necessarily all localities
1765- Quartering Act: forced colonists to house and feed british soldiers,who are enforcing the new rules, for free
1765- Stamp Act Congress: group of colonists petition to repeal the stamp act and the sugar act because taxation without representation. Colonists also start mobs and attacking tax collectors
1766- Declaratory Act: Parliament repealed the Stamp Act but on the same day passed the declaratory act saying that the British has the right to tax the american colonists
1767- Townshend Acts: taxes on colonists for paper, tea, glass, lead & paints
1767- The Circular Letter: Samuel Adams writes the Circular Letter which opposes taxation without representation and calls for united colonial action against the British government
1770- Boston Massacre: On March 5th, British soldiers fired into a crowd of colonists and killed 3 people.
1772- Colonists call for self rule. Colonists boycott items. Women learned how to spin their own yarn and brew their own tea.
1773: Tea Act: taxes on tea to help British East India Company make a monopoly
1773- Boston Tea Party: Colonists dressed as "Native Americans" dump tea into the Boston Harbor
1774- Intolerable/Coercive Acts: shuts down boston ports until the colonists pay tea tax and reimburse the East India tea company
1774- First Continental Congress: Meets in Philadelphia. 56 delegates representing the colonists. Independence was still debated though, not everyone was a Patriot there were still Loyalists.
1775- Starts to prepare for war so Parliament declares them to be in a state of rebellion
1775- Patrick Henry gave a strong speech against the British "Give me Liberty or give me Death."
1775- Restraining Act: Colonists can only trade with Britain
1775- Lexington & Concord: First military action of the Revolutionary War. British soldiers sent to destroy a weapon depot in Concord. Paul Revere rides to Lexington to warn colonists "the British are coming." There is a small battle at Lexington, Britain wins and continues on to Concord where they destroy the colonists weapons and supplies

Articles of Confederation

A weak constitution that governed America during the Revolutionary War ratified in 1777
- Strengths
* Protection of private property
* Guaranteed freedom of religion
* This govnt won them the Revolutionary War
* Land Ordinance Act of 1785
* Allowed the federal government to sell western lands to pay off the national debt and organize these new lands into townships and public school
* Northwest Ordinance of 1787
*Provided that when a new territory reached a population of 60,000, it could then apply for statehood with no slavery allowed
- Weaknesses
* No executive branch (fear of monarchy)
* Can't tax or enforce laws
* Super majority
* No judiciary branch

Battle of Yorktown

1781; the last major battle of the American Revolution
- colonists force Britain into a surrender

Treaty of Paris 1783

1783 ended the American Revolutionary War and America as independent

Shay's Rebellion

1786; Showed that the Articles weren't good bc of no president

The Constitutional Convention

A meeting in Philadelphia in 1787 to revise the Articles but eventually led to the creation of the Constitution
- Electoral College: States choose representatives based on their population size to pick the President.
- Checks and Balances and the Three Branches of Government are created
- Still super majority -\> led to Federalist vs ANti-Federalist

Virginia Plan vs. New Jersey Plan

- Virginia Plan:
* House of Representatives
* Protect large states
* Number of votes based on population
- New Jersey Plan:
* Senate
* Protect small states
* Number of votes equal across all states

Great Compromise

Have Senate and House of Reps so that large and small states were protected

3/5th Compromise

When counting population 3/5th of the enslaved population will go towards the state population so that the state will have more votes in the House

Federalists

- Led by Alexander Hamilton, John Jay & John Adams as well
- Mostly urban and commercial type folks
- Went back to their states to tell them to ratify the new Constitution
- Loose Constructionists
- The Federalists Papers

Anti- Federalists

- Bill of Rights
- Led by Thomas Jefferson & James Madison as well as Henry Clay, Samuel Adams, James Monroe
- Generally farmers and working men
- States Rights
- Disliked the national bank
- Pro-France
-Disliked the Constitution

First Cabinet

President - George Washington

Vice President- John Adam

Treasury Department - Alexander Hamilton

War Department - Henry Knox

State Department - Thomas Jefferson

Judicial Department -

Edmund Randolph

Chief Justice - John Jay

Judiciary Act

1789; Establishes number of Supreme Court Justices
Establishes district and appellate courts

First Political Parties

Democratic Republicans- Thomas Jefferson (James Madison, Patrick Henry)
* Champions of states rights
* Favored rural and agricultural interests
Federalists- Alexander Hamilton (John Adams)
* Proponents of a strong central government
* Favored urban and elite interests
* For National Bank (and it works- it stabilized economy)

Washington's Farewell Address

- Don't get involved with European Affairs
- Stay away from factions and two party political systems

Proclamation of Neutrality

1793; US was still in military alliance with France from Revolutionary war but will stay out of war between France and Britain

Jay's Treaty

1795; attempt to negotiate with Britain to stop impressing US soldiers

Pinckney Treaty

1795; America is granted use of the Port of New Orleans for trade up and down the Mississippi and settles US and Spain border

Battle of Fallen Timbers

1794 battle between Native Americans and American forces
America wins and gets control of Northwest Territory which opens Ohio Valley for settlement

Whiskey Rebellion

1794; tax on whiskey upset farmers as they use it as currency but govnt is able to suppress mob-\> shows that Constitution works

2nd President

John Adams
- Federalist
- Pro-England
- Right when he becomes President Britain and France go to war with each other
- France started seizing American trade ships on their way to England
- VP and President are in different parties

XYZ Affair

A 1797 incident in which French officials demanded a bribe from U.S. diplomats-\> leads to Quasi War

Alien & Sedition Acts

1798;
- Government can arrest or deport any non United States Citizen possible without representation in court
- Illegal to publicly criticize the government

Virginia & Kentucky Resolutions

Resolutions passed in 1798 that attacked the Alien and Sedition Acts as being unconstitutional
- Claims the Alien and Sedition Acts null and void
-States can declare laws that go beyond what is in the Constitution as Unconstitutional

Revolution of 1800

Election of 1800; Thomas Jefferson was elected
First peaceful pass of power between the different parties

Louisiana Purchase

1803; Only wanted some territory but Napoleon offered all of it at very cheap so Monroe (who was sent to buy the territory) bought it
Caused problems because Jefferson was a strict constructionists and buying land was not in the Constitution

Corps of Discovery

1804; Lewis and Clark set out to explore the Louisiana territory to map it
Had help from Sacagawea

Marbury V. Marshall

1803; First significant Supreme Court case
-Adams appoints Federal "midnight judges" so that it is harder for the next Democratic-Republican to pass acts that don't fit the Federal agenda
-John Marshall declares that the Supreme Court is the final authoritative power in stating whether or not acts or laws are Unconstitutional. He also states the Judiciary Act unconstitutional and sets the precedent for Judicial Review

McCullough V. Maryland

States ask if they can tax federal banks in 1819
John Marshall rules NO
This sets the precedent that the federal government laws trump the state government laws in cases of overlap

Causes of War of 1812

- France & Britain were at war- the Napoleonic Wars from 1803-1815 but the US wanted to stay neutral
- Both powers declare that any merchant ships entering either territories would be destroyed
- Impressment
- British possibly arming Native Americans against Americans

War Hawks

wanted a war declaration on England followed by an invasion of the British colonies in Canada also wanted war with Native American tribes who were pushing back and resisting American Westward Expansion past the Alleghenies

War of 1812

- British navy too powerful
- US sends 3 campaigns to Canada and all 3 fail
- French defeat to Russia allows Britain to focus on this war -\> burning of washington
- US repels invasion at Fort McHenry in Baltimore -\> Star Spangled Bar
- US Victory in New Orleans -\> spike of patriotism -\> Andrew Jackson becomes a war hero

Treaty of Ghent

1814; Ends war of 1812 -\> neither side win a mutual cease fire BUT the US didn't lose to Britain either (even if they didn't win)

The Hartford Convention

New England Federalists who disliked the War of 1812 (Feds are pro Britain) tried to secede also disliked the Embargo Act of 1807 -\> led to the death of the Federalist party bc the US "won" the war so they couldn't be mad about it

Embargo Act of 1807

Jefferson closed U.S ports to all exports and restricted imports from Britain

Consequences of the War of 1812

- Era of Good Feelings: Since the Federalists were seen as extremists and died out there was a supposed national unity under the Democratic Republicans
- A new sense of national pride, focusing on improving and investing in the nation itself, rather than states interests
- Showed America's weaknesses; they let the bank charter end so it was difficult to raise funds without a reliable sense of credit or lack of infrastructure and transportation for supplies for the war

The American System

Created by Henry Clay
- Federally funded internal improvements such as roads and canals
- Put a tariff on foreign made goods so that more people could buy and support American goods
- A strong banking system which provides easy and abundant credit
- Not all of that was implemented, but it signals the change of feelings towards American pride and its interests.

Northwest Ordinance of 1787

declared that no new state entering the union was permitted to be a slave state but they ignored this and continued bring enslaved people westward

Tallmadge Amendment

would ban slavery in Missouri after 25 years.
South sees tallmadge amendment as the north purposely trying to end southern economy and so the south threatened to secede from the Union

Missouri Compromise

Aka the Compromise of 1820
- Missouri applied for statehood; causes conflict because it upset the even balance of free and slave states (each had 11)
- Proposed by Henry Clay
- Missouri slave state but Maine created as free state to make even
- For new states: above 36/30 line (minus Missouri) free and below is slave

Gaining the Florida Territory

Andrew Jackson is sent to Florida under orders to not engage in any conflict with Spanish troops just to keep order
Andrew Jackson marches into Spain and attacks two Spanish forts, executes two Seminole Chiefs and executes two British citizens.
Choosing to avoid war and seeing America's determination to take Florida, Spain just sells Florida to America in 1819

Adams-Onis Treaty

1819; makes the sale of Florida official
Spain and America officially define the boundaries of the United States and New Mexico, Texas, etc is still Spains

Monroe Doctrine

1823
-US stay out of Europe's way and Europe stay away from the western hemisphere
- The Western Hemisphere is closed to future colonization
- Any European interference with affairs in the Western Hemisphere would be seen as a hostile action against the United States
- Open trade relations with other places -\> leads to Market Revolution

May Flower Compact

first attempt at self government Democratic Town Meetings Mayflower sailed in 1620

House of Burgesses

First representative government founded in the colonies (although still run by the rich)
Relied on the consent of the governed

Navigation Acts of 1763

British passed the Navigation Acts which required merchants to trade with english colonies and made it so that certain goods had to go to english ports to then get taxed

Halfway Covenant

Used by Puritan Churches to bolster attendance but also keep political leadership under the control of respectable families. Conversion needed but not "regeneration" to be a member of the congregation.

Peter Zenger Trial

newspaper publisher; put on trial for criticizing the government; established precedence that government can be criticized if accusations are true. Freedom of the press.

James Oglethorpe

Founder and governor of the Georgia colony. He ran a tightly-disciplined, military-like colony. Slaves, alcohol, and Catholicism were forbidden in his colony. Many colonists felt that Oglethorpe was a dictator, and that (along with the colonist's dissatisfaction over not being allowed to own slaves) caused the colony to break down and Oglethorpe to lose his position as governor.

Jonathon Edwards

powerful preacher during Great Awakening, his message was of hell and an angry God. 'Sinners in the Hands of an Angry God."

Market Revolution

The linking of southern industries with western and southern farms which was created by advancements in agriculture, industry and transportation
This signals the change of America from an agrarian society to a unified, capitalist society

Cumberland Road

Connected the East Coast to the Heartland (Maryland to Illinois) and was the first national road.

Erie Canal

Built in New York in 1825, linked Western Farmers with Eastern manufacturers to control the flow of trade
The steamboat made trade efficiency significantly increased- now you can go against the tide whenever you want

Market Revolution: Industry

- Patents
- Interchangeable parts created by Eli Whitney -\> Unskilled workers

Market Revolution: Agriculture

- Cotton Gin (Eli Whitney invented it before interchangeable parts) -\> More Cotton produced means more reliance on enslaved workers
- End of Subsistence Farming (for survival- food and necessities) Start of Commercial Farming

Market Revolution: Immigration

North population and industrial center booms bc of immigration
Irish and Germans (Catholics and Jewish mostly)
Boom led to first wave of Nativism
- Catholics seen as spies of Pope and Jewish seen as cheap money lenders

Market Revolution: Rise of Middle Class

North industry -\> middle class: can spend on money on leisure
Had their own culture:
- Emphasis on education
- Temperance was important
- Religious affiliation was important (Protestant)

Cult of Domesticity

Brought about by the rise of middle class after Market Revolution
The idea that a women's role in society was to have kids, raise them and make a home that provides rest for her hard working husband

Lowell Factories

Women worked in factories and worked up to six days a week despite all the pressure to create the 'perfect home for a man to come home to'
- 12-13 hour shifts
- Harsh conditions
- Lived in dorms near factory
- Controlling male bosses
- Basically not getting paid

Panic of 1819

Causes: Irresponsible bank practices and Decreased demand for exports
Effects: Working men were hit the hardest and demanded franchise: wanted the politicians who cause it to be held accountable but they couldn't vote because they didn't own property
So by 1825 men with and without property were allowed to vote -\> influx of new voters created two new parties in the election of 1824

National Republicans vs Democrats

During Election of 1824 caused by Panic of 1819
- National Republicans:
* Expansive view of federal power
* Loose constructionists
- Democrats:
* Restrictive view of federal power
* Strict constructionism

Jeffersonian Democracy

- Revolution of 1800 (peaceful power transferred from fed to demo-rep)
- Strict Constructionism
- Louisiana Purchase 1803 (went against his normal principles)
- New Orleans from French
- Embargo act 1807 (wanted to block both sides to show neutrality but ends up destroying the national Econ)
- No national bank
- In favor of states rights
- Signed a bill that prohibited the importation of slave to US
- Believed that the well educated elites should rule

Jacksonian Democracy

- No Banks
- Spoils system→ thought that all men were qualified to hold office so this system would promote involvement, didn't think people needed to be educated to hold office
- Trail of Tears (generally very harsh policy towards native americans)
- Favored the common man
- Universal White Male Suffrage
- Western man → common man in office
- Expand through conquest
- Der Praesident uber alles (the President over all else)

Tariff of Abominations

Aka the Tariff of 1828
Passed during the Adams administration raised import duties
Northerners benefited bc now it cost people more to buy goods from other places so they'll buy American made goods instead
Southerners hated it because they relied on imported goods to support their economy

NUllification Crisis

In 1832 Congress reaffirmed Tariff of 1828
- Jackson's vp, John C. Calhoun, a South Carolinian, hated the tariff and developed the Doctrine of Nullification
-Doctrine of Nullification: A state can determine the constitutionality of a law and if a state finds a law to be unconstitutional they can nullify it; meaning that they do not follow that law in their state
- South Carolina even threatened to secede from the Union
- So Jackson made Congress pass the Force Bill: Gave Jackson authority to send federal troops to a state (South Carolina) to enforce federal law
- Jackson also got Congress to lower the tariff to stop South Carolina from seceding but South Carolina also nullified the Force Bill

Indian Removal Act

1830; Cherokee Nation within Georgia declares itself a sovereign nation which upsets Georgia
They also find gold in the Cherokee land which the Americans want
Indian Removal Act removes all Indians west of the Mississippi River to the Oklahoma Territory, "To never be bothered again"

Worcester V. Georgia

- Cherokee nation's challenge to the Indian Removal Act, calling it Unconstitutional
- Supreme Court actually sides WITH the Cherokee and says Georgia cannot impose state laws on federally protected lands
- Declares that Cherokee are allowed to stay

Treaty of New Echota

1835; US met with a small delegation of the Cherokee tribe and signed a treaty but none of those members had any authority to sign it
This goes against the Indian Removal act because it said that the President and government could not persuade Natives to move. Jackson administration knowingly ignored this because of states rights

Nat Turner's Rebellion

Rebellion in which Nat Turner led a group of slaves through virginia in an attempt to overthrow and kill planter families. They killed 57 white people before being squashed by the militia

United States V. Amistad

- Spanish slave ship, Amistad, in 1839 was transporting Africans for sale one of the men unshackled himself and others and killed the captain and they were incarcerated
- Went to the Supreme Court and the enslaved Africans were represented by John Quincy Adam
- Court decided in favor of the rebels and set them free -\> lives of enslaved blacks became increasingly difficult as their white owners gain stricter control
- Most Southern legislatures made it illegal to free a slave
- A crime to teach an enslaved person to read and write
_ Outlawed marriage between enslaved people and abolishing any access they had to the courts

Rechartering the National Bank

The Second National Bank had been re-established in 1816 to stabilize the economy to stabilize the economy after the War of 1812
Andrew Jackson thought the National Bank was Unconstitutional and only benefits the wealthy
In 1832, John C. Calhoun delivers a bill to recharter the National Bank but Andrew Jackson - vetoes it calling it "A Hydra of Corruption"
The National Bank dies which upsets the Whigs but many citizens agreed with Jackson and so this was a major stepping stone for Jackson's re-election