After watching the news about a recent kidnapping in downtown Athens, your friend becomes concerned about the rate of which local kidnappings happen. Because of all the news coverage on the kidnappings, your friend begins to believe that is a common occurrence. Your friend is falling victim to __
availability heuristic
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what is confirmation bias
look for confirmation of what we believe
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what is bias blind spot
we are biased about being biased
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present/present bias
our failure to consider appropriate comparison groups
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what is authority source of information
scientific circles, finding scientific sources, reading research, less scholarly research
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what is variable?
something that varies, must have at least two levels or possible values
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what is constant?
something that could potentially vary but is fixed at one level in the study we are conducting
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what are manipulated variables
assigning participants to the different levels of the variable (eg. types of treatment)
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what are measure variables
recording a value or observation
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what are abstract variables
conceptual definition and operational definition
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what is conceptual definition
abstracted concept/definition of a variable eg: extraverted personality
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what is operational definition
turning an abstract concept into a measure or manipulated variable
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what are the keys to operationalizing
subjective or self-report, observed behavior, physiological indicators
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what are the three claims
frequency, association, casual
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what is a frequency claim
describes a particular level of a variable in a population (“how often is one thing happening in a sample”), the most basic claim, not anecdotal claims
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what is an association claim
posits that one variable is associated with another variable (correlations, which does not imply causation)
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what are two important pieces to a correlation
directionality and strength
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making predictions based on strong association
positive and negative associations can help us make predictions, but zero associations cannot
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what are the three criteria for casual claims
covariance, temporal precedence, and no confounds
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what is covariance
the casual and outcome variable are correlated
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what is temporal precedence
the casual variable came before the outcome variable (treatment came before symptom reduction)
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what is validity?
the appropriateness or accuracy of a claim
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what is construct validity
how well are we measuring our constructs? is our operationalization appropriate? are our definitions consistent with extant research? are we measuring/manipulating our variable correctly?
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what is external validity
are claims generalizable? can we expect similar situations in larger populations? will results be similar in different situations?
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what is statistical validity?
reasonable statistical claims are based on the following: strength of the relationship among variables, results are statistically significant, minimizing the possibility of mistaken conclusions
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what is a type 1 error
false positive
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what is a type 2 error
false negative
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what is internal validity
are there any other logical explanations for your results?
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what validities are associated with frequency claims?
construct validity, and external validity
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what validities are associated with association claims
construct, external and statistical validity
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what validities are associated with casual claims
construct, external, statistical, and internal validities
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what is the Nuremberg code (1947)
set of ethical research principles that arose from nuremberg trials
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what were the ethical principles associated with the nuremberg trials
voluntary and informed consent, address important questions in project, no unnecessary harm, right to discontinue
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who is Josef Mengele
german SS officer and physician in Auschwitz, focused on genetics, treated human subjects with little to no regard for lives, health and dignity
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Tuskegee Syphilis Study (1932 to 1972)
lack of respect, harm, disadvantaged social group, shaped public perceptions of science and ethics
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what is the Belmont report
three main principles from the national commission in 1976: respect for persons, beneficence, and justice
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what is respect for persons
individuals should be treated as autonomous agents, informed consent for treatment or research, confidentiality and privacy, some groups require protection from coercion
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what is principle of beneficence
do no harm, anonymous vs confidential, risk-benefit analysis (risks of study vs benefits of conducting the research)
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what is the principle of justice
treat all people fairly, fair balance between people who participate and the people who benefit from it
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what is ethical standard 8
any institution that received federal money must have IRB (businesses do not) - 5+ people including scientist, nonscientists, and someone not affiliated with school, informed consent, deception, debriefing
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when can you use deception
you can lie to your participants if the study requires it; you have to justify why deception is important for your study and let your participants know that your informed consent isn’t telling them everything
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what are the ways of research misconduct
data fabrication, data falsification, plagiarism
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what is data fabrication
researchers invent data that fit their hypothesis
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what is data falsification
researchers influence study’s results
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what is plagiarism
representing other’s words as your own
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what is the anti-argument for using animals in research
animals are as likely to experience suffering as humans, animals have inherent rights equal to humans
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what are pro arguments for animals being used in research
animal research has resulted in numerous benefits to humans and animals alike, animal researchers are sensitive to animal welfare, reduced number of animals they need to use because of new procedure that do not require testing
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animal welfare act (1966)
3 R’s - replacement: use another model if possible; refinement: experimental protocol to minimize pain, distress; reduction: use the fewest number of animals as possible (doesn’t apply to birds, rats and mice)
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amendments to animal welfare act
animals cannot be used in more than one major operative experiment without time to recover and surgeries must be monitored by a veterinarian, new minimum standards for handling, housing, sanitation, feeding and other care practices
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what are types of measures
self-report, observational, physiological measure
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what are self-report measures
questionnaire, interview
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what are observational measure
behavioral measure
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what are physiological measure
biological data
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what is the scale of measurement
the relationship between the values assigned to out variables of interest. these levels are important for 1. setting up surveys, analyzing our data, and interpreting our results
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what are the scales of measurement
categorical/nominal and quantitative variables
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what is categorical/nominal variables?
different categories, no meaningful numbers to define a measurement (ex: species, occupation), rare in physiological and behavioral observations
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what is quantitative variables
coded with meaningful numbers to represent level (ex: weight, IQ score)
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nominal level
1. named variables/categories
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ordinal level
1. named variables/categories, 2. ordering variables
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interval level
1. named variables/categories, 2. ordering variables, 3. equal distance between variables
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ratio level
1. named variables/categories, 2. ordering variables, 3. equal distance between variables, 4. absolute zero
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example of nominal level
college attended, political preference, place of residence
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ordinal level examples
rankings, socio economic status, education level
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interval level examples
temperature, SAT/GRE, credit score
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ratio level examples
weight, dosage, length
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what is validity
whether operationalizations are measuring what they’re supposed to, there’s no single way to achieve validity, assess multiple ways to see if your’e getting at what you want
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what is reliability
how consistent the results of a measure are
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what are the 3 types of reliability
test-retest, inter-rater, and internal reliability
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what is test-retest reliability
time 1 vs time 2, stable constructs
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what is inter-rate reliability
rater 1 vs rater 2, observational data
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what is internal reliability
item 1 vs item 2, self-report scales
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how do we evaluate reliability
we use correlations because we’re making association claims
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what is internal reliability
have cronbach’s alpha, need at least two items, many questions capture it better - assuming that all of the questions relate to the concept
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what is cronbach’s alpha
how items correlate with each other
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what are the types of construct reliability
subjective and empirical
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what are the types of subjective measures of construct validity
face validity and content validity
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what is face validity
does this measure seem to be asking questions that would make sense for the topic that it’s attempting to operationalize?
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what is content validity
does this measure take into account all of the aspects of the topic that it’s attempting to operationalize?
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what are two subjective ways to assess construct validity
face validity - looks like what we want to measure, plausibility
content validity - does your measure capture all parts of a defined construct?