psych exam 3

category

a class of objects that most people agree belong together

basic-level category

used most often is most useful and predictive

superordinate categories

more general, less descriptive

subordinate-level categories

very specific

list category levels from broadest to most specific

superordinate, basic level, subordinate

prototype

\-best or most representative member of a category

\-average across features

exemplar

\-store all examples of the category

\-preserves variability

family resemblance

\-how similar it is to other membranes of the family

\-members of a category share certain core features but not all members have to have all these features

defining features

\-must have certain characteristics that define the concept to be in a category

what is the problem with defining features

most categories have members tat cannot be “defined” by any single feature

a problem

a goal, and uncertainty about how to reach it

a problem has:

1) set of given information: a description of the problem

2) set of operations: permissible moves or actions

3) goal: a description of what constitutes a solution

what are the two problem types

well-defined and ill-defined

well-defined

goal and starting point are clear; you know when it’s been solved

what solves a well-defined problem

algorithms

ill-defined

uncertainty! may be hard to tell when solution is reached or there is not one best answer

what solves an ill-defined problem

heuristics

incubation

time away from a problem provides new insights, or otherwise facilitates, the problem solving process

functional fixedness

instances when you fail to solve a problem because of the typical use of the object

fractionation

consider the elementary characteristics of the object (shape, color, weight, etc)

mental set or problem solving set

inappropriate application of past problem solutions to new problem

insight

process by which solution seems to “magically” pop into mind

who coined the term “insight”

Kohler

state-dependent memory

positive mood activates positive material in memory

decision-making

the thought process involved in evaluating and choosing from among a set of alternatives; usually involving some risk

prescriptive

what we ought to do, rationally

descriptive

describe what people actually do based on research

decision making: direct route

automatic, low effort, low attention, default

decision making: peripheral route

cognitive, deliberate, effortful, direction action

framing effects

how information is presented affects decisions

confirmation bias

seeking information that confirms views, ignoring/discounting that which does not

belief persistence

rationalization in the face of evidence that disconfirms beliefs

framing

\-how alternatives are presented, which affect decisions

\-people tend to take risks when gain is emphasized

\-people tend to avoid risks when loss is emphasized

algorithms

\-sets of operations applied systematically to generate a solution

\-solution to well-defined problems

heuristics

\-strategies or “rules of thumb”

\-used with ill-defined problems

\-do not guarantee success or best possible outcome

means-end analysis

\-find actions (means) that reduce the gap between the current starting point and goal (ends) at each step

\-usually requires breaking down problem into sub-goals

working backward

\-start at the end (goal), and work backwards

searching for analogies

\-look for similarities between this problem, and others you have solved

\-be cautious of mental set

availability heuristic

\-based on how easily examples come to mind

representativeness heuristic

\-ignoring the base rate

\-we estimate the probability of an event based on how similar it is to a known situation

anchoring-and-adjustment

\-the initial number (anchor) determines estimates

\-adjustments around it

10 yr old who had mental level of 23 yr old

Marilyn vos Savant

psychometrics

measuring the mind

psychometric view

intelligence is a mental capacity that can be understood by analyzing performance on mental tests

who carried out the first attempts at psychometrics

Galton

intelligence testing: Alfred Binet

mental age

intelligence testing: William Stern

IQ

intelligence testing: Lewis Terman

1916 Stanford-Binet test

IQ today

\-mean is 100

\-std deviation is 15

iq # for developmental intellectual disability

less than or equal to 70

moron

IQ 55-75, mild (6-8th grade education)imb

imbecile

IQ 35-55, moderate

idiot

IQ 20-40, severe

gifted

above 130

genius

above 145

spearman

two-factor theory of intelligence (g and s)

\-factor analysis procedure groups together related items on tests

general intelligence

g

specific intelligence

s

cattell

fluid vs. crystallized intelligence

general intelligence is divided into two components

fluid intelligence and crystallized intelligence

fluid intelligence

ability to solve problems, reason and remember

\-innate, inborn, genetic

crystallized intelligence

\-knowledge and abilities acquired as a result of experience

\-reflects schooling

Howard Gardner

multiple intelligences

\-later regretted using Intelligence, abilities, or gifts is perhaps closer to his original intent

reliability

do you get the same results on re-test?

validity

does it measure what it should?

standardization

allows comparison

intelligence tests

measure intelligence

achievement tests

how much information/skill acquired

\-classroom exams, drivers license exam

aptitude test

predicts future learning rate

language

communication of thought and ideas using symbols is known as

grammar

set of rules that allow the communicator to combine arbitrary symbols to convey meaning

phonology

rules for possible word sound combinations in language

syntax

rules for combining words into sentences

semantics

rules used to communicate meaning

generativity

ability to say and understand things never before heard, novel constructions emerged

displacement

ability to communicate about things that are not immediately present

chomsky

humans have an innate ability to learn language (nativist)

surface structure

superficial appearance, ordering of words (literally what we say)

deep structure

underlying representation or meaning (what we mean)

phonemes

the smallest significant sound units in speech

morphemes

the smallest units of language that carry meaning

syntax

words, phrases, and sentences

1st vocal production

crying

3-5 weeks, up to 4 months

cooing (vowel sounds), vowel discrimination

4-6 months

babbling (consonants and vowels)

genes

parts of chromosomes made up of DNA encoding traits

how many chromosomes do humans have

23 pairs

genotype

genetic program DNA

phenotype

expression of a particular trait

monozygotic

one egg, identical twins

dizygotic

two egg, fraternal

mitosis

\-cell nucleus duplicates with division

\-each sister cell has the same DNA

meiosis

the cell divides twice

\-each of the four sister cells has half unpaired chromosomes

nondisjunction

pair of 21st chromosomes in either the sperm or the egg fails to separate during division

translocation

total 46 chromosomes but extra full or partial copy of chromosome 21 attached to another chromosome

mosaicism

mixture of cells, some have 46 chromosomes, some have an extra

fertilization

\-begins when a sperm penetrates egg cell

\-ends with the creation of the zygote (fertilized egg)

\-process takes about 24 hours

\-sperm can survive for up to 48 hours

\-takes about ten hours to navigate the female productive track to the fallopian tube where fertilization begins

4 days after fertilization

\
\-zygote splits into many smaller cells called a morula

\-inner cell mass will develop into the embryo, the outer cells become the placenta

day 4 to 5

monozygotic twins form in this interval

germinal period

\-0-2 weeks

\-conception to zygote implantation